Libisosa: An Archaeological Site in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain
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Official Website: www.um.es
Country: Spain
Civilization: Roman
Remains: City
Context
Libisosa is an archaeological site situated on Cerro del Castillo, an elevated hill and adjacent plateau within the municipality of Lezuza, in the province of Albacete, Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. The site commands a strategic vantage point over surrounding river valleys and agricultural plains, offering natural defensive advantages and control over regional land routes. Its topography includes steep slopes and a narrow summit, which shaped its urban development and fortification strategies.
Archaeological investigations have revealed continuous occupation from the Late Bronze Age through the medieval period. The site’s location within the Iberian Peninsula’s southeastern interior placed it at the crossroads of indigenous Iberian cultures and later Roman imperial expansion. Stratified deposits document cultural transitions, including Iberian settlement patterns, Roman urbanization, and medieval military reuse. The proximity to natural resources such as arable land and watercourses supported sustained habitation and economic activity over centuries.
Although local populations were aware of the ruins for generations, systematic archaeological research commenced in the late twentieth century. Excavations have uncovered fortification remains, residential quarters, public buildings, inscriptions, coins, and diverse material culture. These findings provide a well-preserved record of cultural and political transformations in this part of Hispania. Ongoing conservation and scholarly projects continue to enhance understanding of Libisosa’s regional significance.
History
Libisosa’s historical trajectory reflects the complex cultural and political dynamics of southeastern Iberia from the Late Bronze Age through the medieval era. Initially established as an Iberian oppidum, the site later underwent Roman colonial reorganization and experienced military conflict during the Sertorian Wars. Its strategic position on key communication routes influenced its role in regional power struggles. Following the Roman period, Libisosa was repurposed in the medieval period as a fortified watchtower site before eventual decline and modern archaeological rediscovery.
Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age (c. 9th/8th–6th century BCE)
Archaeological evidence situates the earliest occupation of Libisosa on Cerro del Castillo during the Late Bronze Age, extending into the Early Iron Age or Orientalizing period. Excavations in Sector 2 have yielded handmade prehistoric pottery and a concentration of gray-toned ceramic vessels, indicative of a settled community. This phase marks the transition from Bronze Age cultural traditions to the emergence of Iberian societies in the region. The site likely functioned as a local center within the territory of the Oretani, an Iberian people documented in classical sources. The continuity of habitation suggests the development of a fortified settlement or oppidum, characteristic of Iberian urbanism.
Iberian Oppidum and Late Iberian Phase (2nd century–early 1st century BCE)
By the 2nd century BCE, Libisosa is identified in Ptolemy’s geographical accounts as an Iberian city within Oretani lands. During this period, the community lived under Roman dominion as stipendiary peregrini—non-citizen subjects obligated to pay tribute. Roman influence was present but coexisted with a strong Iberian cultural identity. Archaeological data reveal a process of early Romanization facilitated by Italic merchants and a military presence securing converging routes. Simultaneously, local elites expressed Iberian aristocratic values through iconography and mythological motifs, reinforcing social cohesion and privilege under Roman rule.
The oppidum’s urban fabric included two principal sectors: Sector 3 on the northern slope, comprising approximately twenty multifunctional apartments constructed with rammed earth and adobe walls on stone foundations, serving as residences for the Iberian elite and their clients; and Sector 18, dominated by a large trapezoidal oligarchic building with six rooms used for textile production, agriculture, metallurgy, and cavalry-related activities. A substantial cellar adjoining this building contained over eighty amphorae, indicating surplus storage likely intended for trade or redistribution. Recent excavations in Sector 18 also uncovered a cult building destroyed in the 2nd century BCE, which yielded the notable “Goddess and Iberian Prince” ritual vase, now exhibited in the Lezuza museum.
This Iberian phase ended abruptly during the Sertorian Wars (82–72 BCE), when the oppidum was violently destroyed. The rapid collapse of structures created a “burial effect,” preserving buildings and artifacts in situ, including the remains of an infant found in a street, attesting to the conflict’s severity. The destruction marks a significant turning point in the site’s history.
Roman Republican Period and Sertorian Wars (mid-1st century BCE)
The mid-1st century BCE was dominated by the Sertorian Wars, a civil conflict in Roman Hispania involving the rebel Quintus Sertorius. Although no literary sources explicitly mention Libisosa’s involvement, its strategic location on the ancient Way of Hannibal (via Heraclea), controlling passage between southern and eastern Iberia, strongly suggests military significance. Following the oppidum’s destruction, a hastily constructed defensive wall was erected over the ruins of Sector 3. This fortification, approximately three meters thick and enclosing nine hectares, employed a double dry masonry technique with an interior filled with stones and earth, consistent with Vitruvius’ description of emplecton construction.
The wall featured two principal gates in this sector: the North Gate and the Northwest Gate. The North Gate was protected by two massive rectangular bastions about six meters wide, guarding a slightly flared opening measuring nine meters externally and 7.3 meters internally. By the mid-1st century CE, this gate was partially closed, leaving only a small postern for access, likely due to structural deterioration. Sector 18 was abandoned after the conflict, reflecting the collapse of the Iberian elite’s household economy and a shift toward militarized urbanism focused on defense.
Roman Imperial Period: Colonia Libisosa Foroaugustana (late 1st century BCE–2nd century CE)
Following a period of abandonment, Libisosa was reestablished as a Roman colony, Libisosa Foroaugustana, probably granted ius italicum by Emperor Augustus during his third trip to Hispania at the end of the 1st century BCE. This legal status conferred privileges such as exemption from certain taxes and full Roman citizenship rights, reflecting the colony’s importance in consolidating imperial control over the region. The colonial foundation involved significant urban planning and engineering to create a forum-centered city on the hilltop.
The forum measured approximately 45.7 by 30.5 meters, maintaining a 3:2 proportion as recommended by Vitruvius. It was formed by extensive earthworks, including southern excavation and northern terracing. The main eastern entrance featured a façade with two large rectangular niches flanking a central three-meter-wide doorway, leading to northern and southern porticoes. The forum’s central axis included the mundus, a ritual pit near the basilica podium, adjacent to an Iberian-Roman votive deposit dating to about a century earlier.
The southern portico provided access to the curia, oriented east-west and comprising two rooms measuring 7.15 by 19.7 meters. The basilica, a large rectangular building 41 by 14.5 meters, occupied the western side, with two entrances from the forum and an interior double row of nine columns. North of the basilica and along the northern portico extended a possible granary building measuring 5 by 35.5 meters, currently under excavation. Adjacent to the basilica and along the main north-south road axis was a large domus occupying an entire city block, composed of twelve rooms, with tabernae (shops) on the eastern flank connected internally by a staircase.
The decumanus maximus ran north of the forum at a lower elevation, flanked by porticoes and numerous taverns. A large cistern was located at the intersection of the decumanus maximus and the basilica, with a stairway connecting the decumanus maximus to the forum plaza. Archaeological finds from the forum include ceramics, inscriptions mentioning duoviri magistrates and the colony’s affiliation to the Galeria tribe, three Corinthian capitals, sculptural remains of toga-clad figures including Julio-Claudian portraits (one bearing damnatio memoriae), and coins spanning Republican and Imperial periods. Earlier finds include a small sculpted head modeled after Empress Julia Agrippina Minor and inscriptions referencing a provincial flamen in Tarraco and a dedication to Marcus Aurelius dated 166–167 CE.
Libisosa flourished during the High Empire, particularly in the 1st century CE. However, the northern forum area shows evidence of destruction, possibly due to natural causes such as landslides or earthquakes. Subsequent remodeling included portico reconstruction, installation of a monumental fountain, and raising of the forum’s paving levels, indicating continued urban investment despite challenges.
Late Antiquity
Occupation persisted into Late Antiquity, though with diminished urban vitality and changing use patterns. Archaeological layers reveal remodeling and reuse of existing structures but no major new construction. The population likely decreased, and economic activities contracted to local subsistence. The site’s strategic importance waned as regional power centers shifted elsewhere. Evidence for Christianization is limited but probable, reflecting broader religious transformations in the Roman Empire. No signs of violent destruction or abrupt abandonment have been documented for this period.
Medieval Period (13th–17th centuries)
During the medieval era, the summit of Cerro del Castillo was occupied by a quadrangular watchtower or castle, constructed using reused Roman masonry and lime mortar. The tower, measuring 13 meters per side, featured multiple vaulted floors connected by an internal staircase within thick perimeter walls. It provided extensive visual control over the surrounding landscape and formed part of frontier defenses following the Christian reconquest of the region. After Alfonso VIII’s conquest of nearby Alcaraz in 1213, the tower and its environs came under Christian control. Tax exemptions granted in the early 15th century encouraged settlement near the tower.
Lezuza was involved in regional conflicts during the 15th century, including disputes between the Marquisate of Villena and the Trastámara dynasty. Under the Catholic Monarchs and into the 16th century, the population shifted from the hilltop to the plain, where a new church was established. Northeast of the Roman forum, a politico-religious complex associated with the Military Orders was constructed, comprising a courtyard with a cistern or silo, southern rooms reusing tavern walls, and an elongated hall with Christian symbols such as embedded crosses. This complex functioned as a religious and administrative center from the 13th to 17th centuries and is currently protected but awaiting restoration.
Modern Rediscovery and Archaeological Research (1996–present)
Systematic archaeological excavations at Libisosa began in 1996 under the direction of José Uroz Sáez from the University of Alicante and have continued without interruption. The site covers approximately 30 hectares, encompassing remains from the Late Bronze Age through the Late Middle Ages. The exceptional preservation of the Iberian-Roman layers is attributed to the rapid destruction during the Sertorian Wars, which created a “burial effect” preserving structures and artifacts in situ.
Recent discoveries include the cult building in Sector 18, the “Goddess and Iberian Prince” ritual vase, extensive assemblages of Iberian-Roman weapons, significant coin hoards, and a rich corpus of Iberian inscriptions. Conservation and enhancement projects focus on the medieval watchtower and other key structures. In 2021, Libisosa was designated an archaeological park, becoming the second such park in Albacete province and the sixth in Castilla-La Mancha, facilitating heritage protection and public engagement.
Daily Life and Importance by Period
Iberian Oppidum and Late Iberian Phase (2nd century–early 1st century BCE)
During the Iberian oppidum phase, Libisosa was inhabited by a socially stratified community under Roman suzerainty but maintaining distinct Iberian cultural traditions. The elite resided in rammed earth and adobe apartments, while artisans and agricultural workers supported the local economy. Sector 18’s oligarchic building reveals a multifunctional household economy combining textile production, metallurgy, agriculture, and cavalry-related activities, indicating the prominence of mounted warriors within the social hierarchy.
Economic life was household-centered, with evidence of wool processing, agricultural tool storage, and surplus food management, including a large cellar containing over eighty amphorae likely used for wine storage and trade. Imported Italic amphorae and fine wares coexisted with predominantly local Iberian ceramics, reflecting active trade networks. Dietary staples probably included cereals, olives, and livestock products, consistent with regional Iberian patterns.
Religious practices involved local cults, as indicated by ritual deposits and the “Goddess and Iberian Prince” vase. The community’s location on key land routes facilitated the presence of Italic merchants and military contingents, underscoring Libisosa’s role as a regional hub for commerce and security. Elite iconography and ritual objects reinforced social cohesion and aristocratic identity.
Roman Republican Period and Sertorian Wars (mid-1st century BCE)
The Sertorian Wars brought violent disruption to Libisosa, with the oppidum’s destruction and subsequent fortification reflecting a shift toward militarized urbanism. The population reorganized around a fortified nucleus enclosed by a thick defensive wall with massive gates and bastions. Residential complexity diminished, and economic activities contracted to subsistence and defense. The closure of one gate and the abandonment of Sector 18’s oligarchic complex indicate the collapse of elite household economies.
Despite conflict, Libisosa’s strategic position on the Way of Hannibal maintained its military and logistical importance. Religious and social customs adapted to wartime conditions, with no evidence of new cultic construction. Civic organization focused on defense rather than administration.
Roman Imperial Period: Colonia Libisosa Foroaugustana (late 1st century BCE–2nd century CE)
Re-founded as a Roman colonia under Augustus, Libisosa Foroaugustana experienced profound civic and social transformation. The population included Roman settlers and local inhabitants governed by municipal institutions, with magistrates such as duoviri attested epigraphically. The urban plan centered on a forum with porticoes, basilica, curia, and granary, reflecting Roman civic architecture and administrative functions.
Residential life featured large domus with tabernae, combining private and commercial uses. Interiors likely included mosaic floors, painted walls, and decorated altars. Economic activities encompassed market trade, artisanal production, and organized storage and retail of staple goods. The decumanus maximus and cardo structured the street grid, facilitating connectivity and commerce.
Religious life incorporated Roman cults alongside residual Iberian elements, with ritual pits and altars in the forum. Inscriptions and sculptural remains attest to imperial cult worship and local magistracies. Public festivals and civic ceremonies likely structured social life. Political dynamics are reflected in sculptural portraits bearing signs of damnatio memoriae.
Late Antiquity
During Late Antiquity, Libisosa’s urban vitality declined, with population decrease and economic contraction. Buildings were reused or adapted, indicating continuity amid decline. Religious practices shifted toward Christianity, though direct evidence is limited. The site’s administrative role diminished as regional centers relocated. Civic structures persisted in reduced form, maintaining essential governance and religious functions.
Medieval Period (13th–17th centuries)
The medieval period saw the repurposing of Cerro del Castillo’s summit as a fortified watchtower, housing a small garrison overseeing the territory. The population relocated to the plain, where a new church and a politico-religious complex associated with the Military Orders developed. This complex included a courtyard with a cistern, burial spaces, and a basilical hall featuring Christian symbols embedded in the architecture.
Economic life centered on agriculture and local crafts supporting the settlement. Social organization reflected feudal and military structures, with the Military Orders playing a key role in governance and religious life. Tax exemptions encouraged settlement near the tower, fostering community growth. Religious practices were explicitly Christian, with liturgical spaces and symbolic crosses. The site’s strategic importance lay in surveillance and control of regional routes during dynastic conflicts.
Remains
Architectural Features
Libisosa’s archaeological remains span from the Late Bronze Age through the medieval period, reflecting its evolution from an Iberian oppidum to a Roman colonial city and later a medieval fortified site. Construction techniques vary by period, including rammed earth and adobe walls for Iberian residences, dry masonry employing Vitruvian emplecton for Roman fortifications, and lime mortar masonry for medieval structures. The settlement’s layout adapted to topography, with fortifications enclosing the urban core and public buildings situated on the hilltop plateau. Preserved remains include fortification walls, residential quarters, civic buildings, and a medieval watchtower, many preserved in situ or partially excavated.
Key Buildings and Structures
Iberian Residential Sector 3
Situated on the northern slope of the oppidum, Sector 3 comprises approximately twenty multifunctional apartments dating to the 2nd century BCE. These residences, used by the Iberian elite and their clients, were constructed primarily with rammed earth (tapial) and adobe walls resting on stone plinths. The collapse of adobe walls created a burial effect preserving interior contents. Excavations have recovered predominantly Iberian-made artifacts alongside imported amphorae, black gloss pottery, and bronze items. The full extent of this residential neighborhood remains to be defined.
Iberian Oligarchic Building (Sector 18, Apartment 127)
This large trapezoidal building, covering 181 square meters and dating to the 2nd century BCE, includes at least a partial upper floor and six rooms. It features a shed roof with a porch-like opening on the west side. The structure served multifunctional purposes beyond domestic use, evidenced by finds of agricultural tools, cavalry and livestock equipment, and metallurgical remains. Textile and wool processing is indicated by a lead vessel (cuba de plomo) found on site. One room contained a large accumulation of amphorae, suggesting food storage and trade, especially wine. Adjacent to the east lies a 77 square meter cellar with over 80 amphorae-jars, likely used for surplus storage or redistribution. This building is musealized in situ for study and preservation.
Cult Building (Sector 18)
Also located in Sector 18, this closed-context cult building was destroyed in the 2nd century BCE. Archaeological evidence supports its interpretation as a religious structure. It yielded the notable “Goddess and the Iberian Prince” ritual vase, now housed in the Lezuza museum permanent collection.
Roman Wall and Gates
Constructed hastily around 80 BCE following the Iberian oppidum’s destruction during the Sertorian Wars, the defensive wall encloses approximately nine hectares. It employs a double dry masonry technique with an interior filled with stones and earth, consistent with Vitruvian emplecton construction. The wall is about three meters thick. Two main gates survive in this sector: the North Gate and the Northwest Gate. The North Gate features two massive rectangular bastions approximately six meters wide externally, protecting a slightly flared opening measuring nine meters externally and 7.3 meters internally. This gate was later partially closed, possibly in the mid-1st century CE, leaving only a small postern gate (potern) for access. Sector 18 was abandoned after this period, while Sector 3 remained enclosed within the wall.
Forum of the Roman Colony Libisosa Foroaugustana
Founded likely at the end of the 1st century BCE following Augustus’ colonial promotion, the forum measures approximately 45.7 by 30.5 meters, maintaining a 3:2 proportion as recommended by Vitruvius. Significant engineering works included clearing the southern slope and terracing the northern side to create a rectangular plaza on the hill’s highest and narrowest part. The main entrance is on the eastern side, with a façade featuring two large rectangular niches flanking a central three-meter-wide doorway. This entrance leads to two porticoes on the north and south sides of the forum.
The forum’s central axis includes the mundus, a ritual pit, located near the basilica podium. A votive deposit dating about a century earlier was found nearby. The southern portico provides access to the curia, oriented east-west, consisting of two rooms measuring 7.15 by 19.7 meters. On the western side stands the basilica, a large rectangular building 41 by 14.5 meters, with two entrances from the forum and a double row of nine interior columns. North of the northern portico extends a possible granary building measuring 5 by 35.5 meters, currently under excavation and lacking internal subdivisions.
West of the basilica and adjacent to the main north-south road axis is a large domus occupying an entire city block, composed of twelve rooms. The domus has an eastern entrance area apparently intended for tabernae (shops), connected internally by a staircase. North of the forum, at a lower elevation, runs the decumanus maximus with two lateral porticoes and numerous taverns opening onto it. A large cistern is located at the intersection of the decumanus maximus and the basilica. A stairway connects the decumanus maximus with the forum plaza.
Archaeological finds from the forum include ceramics, inscription fragments mentioning local magistrates (duoviri) and the Galeria tribe affiliation, three Corinthian capitals, sculptural remains of togati (figures in Roman togas), Julio-Claudian portraits (one bearing signs of damnatio memoriae), coins from Republican and Imperial periods, and a pulvinus altar decorated with a five-petal rosette. The forum’s northern part shows signs of destruction, possibly from landslides or seismic activity, followed by remodeling including portico restructuring, installation of a monumental fountain, and raising of paving levels.
Castle (Medieval Watchtower)
Located at the summit of Cerro del Castillo, approximately 1000 meters above sea level, the quadrangular watchtower measures 13 meters on each side. Constructed during the medieval period, likely from the 13th century onward, it is a multi-story structure with vaulted ceilings connected by an internal staircase running within the perimeter walls. The external masonry walls are built using a formwork technique with limestone, sandstone, and tuff reused from Roman monuments. Mortar consists of lime binder mixed with coarse orange siliceous aggregate and small pebbles. The interior wall fill uses the same mortar but with less regular stone placement. The tower was taken by Alfonso VIII’s troops after the conquest of Alcaraz in 1213. It was abandoned as a habitat during the 16th century when the settlement moved to the plain around a new church. Consolidation and enhancement works are currently underway.
Politico-Religious Complex (Sector 11)
Located northeast of the forum and affecting some taverns along the decumanus maximus, this complex dates from the 13th to the 17th centuries. It comprises three main parts: a large rectangular northern courtyard with a cistern or silo; southern rooms reusing walls from decumanus taverns; and an elongated central hall serving representative and religious functions, possibly a church or basilical hall. The central hall divides into two parts: a larger western room (17.5 by 4.65 meters internal span) with a continuous bench on three sides and a pebble pavement featuring two embedded crosses made from tile fragments, linking it to the Military Orders; and a smaller quadrangular cult room (4.65 meters per side) separated by an arch, with brick pavement and an elevated altar structure on the east wall. A male burial was found in the southern rooms. The building is currently protected and buried, awaiting restoration and public exhibition.
Other Remains
Sector 2 contains traces of Final Bronze Age habitation, including handmade prehistoric pottery and gray-toned vessels dating from the 9th/8th to 6th centuries BCE. Surface finds across the site include Iberian inscriptions, weapons, and a significant coin hoard associated with the destruction phase during the Sertorian Wars. The overall site covers approximately 30 hectares, with remains spanning from the Late Bronze Age through the Late Middle Ages.
Preservation and Current Status
Libisosa preserves well-defined architectural remains from multiple periods, including Iberian residential sectors with rammed earth and adobe walls, a Roman defensive wall with bastions and gates, and the Roman forum with its associated buildings. The Iberian oligarchic building is musealized in situ, allowing direct study of its preserved rooms and contents. The medieval watchtower is undergoing consolidation and enhancement. The politico-religious complex is protected but remains buried, pending restoration. The forum shows partial destruction and remodeling phases, with some structures fragmentary. Conservation efforts are ongoing under regional heritage authorities and university projects.
Unexcavated Areas
The full perimeter of the Iberian Residential Sector 3 remains undefined, indicating areas yet to be excavated. The granary building north of the forum is still under excavation and lacks internal subdivisions. Other parts of the site, covering approximately 30 hectares, include surface finds and sectors with limited exploration. Future excavations are planned as part of ongoing research, but some areas await funding and conservation measures before further work can proceed.
