Persepolis: The Ceremonial Capital of the Achaemenid Empire in Iran
Visitor Information
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Official Website: www.persepolis.ir
Country: Iran
Civilization: Achaemenid
Remains: Civic
History
Persepolis is located near the modern city of Marvdasht in Fars Province, Iran. It was established by the Achaemenid Persians as a ceremonial capital and administrative center. Originally named Parsa in Old Persian, the site was founded by King Darius I between 518 and 515 BCE as part of a grand building program to express imperial unity and royal authority.
Following its foundation, Persepolis was expanded by Darius’s successors, including Xerxes I and Artaxerxes I. Construction and development continued for over two centuries, with successive rulers adding palaces, gates, and other monumental structures. The city served not only as a place for Nowruz, the Persian New Year celebrations, but also as a permanent political and administrative center, as shown by thousands of clay tablets detailing governance and daily affairs.
In 330 BCE, Persepolis was captured and partially destroyed by Alexander the Great. This act likely symbolized the end of Achaemenid rule. Ancient accounts suggest the burning may have been motivated by revenge for Xerxes I’s earlier destruction of Athens or occurred during a drunken celebration. Despite this devastation, the site retained symbolic and ritual importance under later dynasties such as the Seleucids, Parthians, and Sasanians, who continued cultic activities and drew architectural inspiration from Persepolis.
Throughout history, Persepolis remained known and visited. Western travelers documented the ruins from the 14th century onward. Archaeological excavations began in the 19th century and have continued into the 21st century, uncovering extensive remains including palace complexes, a lower city, and a monumental gate predating Darius I. In modern times, the site hosted grand celebrations marking 2,500 years of Persian monarchy in 1971. It survived iconoclastic threats after the 1979 Iranian Revolution and is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site facing ongoing preservation challenges.
Remains
Persepolis is built on a large limestone terrace approximately 450 by 300 meters and 14 meters high. The terrace has four stepped levels arranged in a grid-like plan, enclosed by massive stone retaining walls fixed with metal clamps but no mortar. The layout reflects a strict social hierarchy and ceremonial order, with separate routes for the king, nobles, and subject peoples.
The main western entrance features a grand double-ramp staircase added by Xerxes I. Each ramp has 111 wide, shallow steps designed to allow dignitaries to ascend with dignity. This staircase leads to a courtyard before the Gate of All Nations, built around 475 BCE. The gate’s western entrance stands 5.5 meters high and is flanked by two colossal Assyrian-style bulls. Inside, a covered hall with four 18-meter tall columns shaped like stylized palm trees leads to the Apadana courtyard and the Processional Way. The gate is guarded by winged human-headed bulls known as lamassu.
The Apadana Palace, begun by Darius I and completed by Xerxes I, is a large square hypostyle hall measuring 60.5 meters per side. It originally had 72 columns about 20 meters tall, with Ionic-style fluted shafts and capitals combining Egyptian, Iranian, and Assyrian motifs. The roof was supported by wooden beams resting on sculpted bull and lion protomes fixed with lead. Walls and columns were richly painted and decorated with gold, ivory, and precious metals. The palace could hold up to 10,000 people for royal ceremonies. Its eastern staircase is exceptionally well preserved, adorned with detailed bas-reliefs showing delegations from 23 subject nations bringing tribute, accompanied by inscriptions in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian cuneiform.
South of the Apadana lies the Tachara Palace, built by Darius I and expanded by Xerxes I and Artaxerxes III. It has a unique southern entrance via a double staircase and features reliefs depicting the king fighting evil, ceremonial scenes, and a royal bath with water channels and red cement flooring remains.
The Tripylon, or Central Palace, attributed to Xerxes I, is smaller with three entrances and decorated staircases showing guards and nobles. Its reliefs emphasize Xerxes’s legitimacy as Darius’s successor.
The Hadish Palace, also built by Xerxes I, was twice the size of the Tachara. It had a central hall supported by 36 stone and wooden columns, now lost, surrounded by smaller rooms with sculpted doorways. The southern part’s function is debated, possibly royal apartments or treasury annexes. Monumental staircases decorated with animal motifs and royal iconography provided access.
The Palace of the Hundred Columns is the largest palace at Persepolis, measuring 70 meters square and supported by 100 wooden columns. It is decorated with well-preserved reliefs of animals, royal scenes, and subject peoples. Its northern and southern gates bear distinct relief programs emphasizing royal authority and imperial unity.
In the southeast corner of the terrace, the Treasury complex built by Darius I covers about 10,000 square meters. It includes two large halls supported by 100 and 99 wooden columns. Thousands of administrative tablets detailing workers’ wages and payments were found here.
Adjacent to the Palace of the Hundred Columns are barracks, administrative offices, and a hall with 32 columns of uncertain function. Archaeologists uncovered over 30,000 Elamite tablets in this area.
The so-called “Harem,” likely misnamed, is an L-shaped building accessed from the southern gate of the Hundred Columns Palace. It contains a central columned hall opening onto a courtyard and is decorated with reliefs of royal combats against evil. It includes 25 hypostyle rooms with 16 columns each and two staircases connecting to the Hadish Palace. Its exact function remains debated, possibly administrative or royal quarters.
Recent excavations revealed a lower city about 300 meters south of the terrace. This area includes aristocratic residences, artisan quarters, and specialized neighborhoods separated by large gardens. Many modest dwellings were likely made of terracotta and have not survived.
Extensive gardens, known as Pairidaeza, surrounded the palatial complex. These included imported trees such as walnut, olive, pine, plane, and cypress, symbolizing royal power and paradise. A sophisticated hydraulic system supported irrigation, featuring over two kilometers of canals and a 15-kilometer aqueduct from the Seyedan mountain.
Royal rock-cut tombs attributed to Artaxerxes II and III are carved into the Kuh-e Rahmat cliff east of the terrace. These tombs have colonnaded facades and reliefs depicting royal iconography and inscriptions. An unfinished tomb, likely intended for Darius III, lies further south.
Construction materials include gray limestone quarried nearby, wooden columns made mostly of cedar, oak, and ebony, and mudbrick walls. Stone elements such as door frames, column bases, and capitals survive, while mudbrick walls have not.
The architectural style blends influences from across the empire. Ionian Greek elements appear in column design and hypostyle halls. Egyptian features include cornices and capitals. Mesopotamian motifs appear in palatial layouts, floral decorations, and crenellations. Assyrian influences are visible in lamassu figures and orthostats.
Bas-reliefs are the main sculptural form, decorating staircases, doorways, and interiors. They depict delegations, royal ceremonies, and mythological combat scenes with high detail. Some high-relief animal sculptures and a few round sculptures, such as a dog statue, have also been found.
Polychromy was widely used in architecture and sculpture. Pigments included black (asphalt), red (vermilion and hematite), green, Egyptian blue, white, and yellow (ochre or gold). Evidence of paint remains on columns, walls, and reliefs, along with paint storage vessels.
Archaeological work began in the 19th century, with major excavations by Ernst Herzfeld and Erich Schmidt in the 1930s. Recent Italian-Iranian projects uncovered the lower city and a monumental gate predating Darius I.
Preservation efforts include protective roofing over vulnerable elements like the eastern Apadana staircase and plans to limit visitor impact. The site faces threats from environmental pollution, nearby infrastructure projects, and illicit antiquities trafficking.
