Sagalassos Archaeological Site: An Ancient City in Southwestern Türkiye

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Official Website: muze.gov.tr

Country: Turkey

Civilization: Byzantine, Greek, Roman

Remains: City

Context

The Sagalassos Archaeological Site is located near the modern town of Ağlasun in Burdur Province, southwestern Türkiye. It occupies a prominent limestone plateau within the Taurus mountain range, rising between approximately 1450 and 1700 meters above sea level. The site overlooks the Ağlasun plain to the south and faces northward toward Lake Burdur, with natural drainage into adjacent valleys. The topography, characterized by steep slopes and a relatively flat summit, influenced the spatial organization of the settlement and the routing of its internal pathways.

Archaeological investigations have revealed continuous human activity at Sagalassos from the early Holocene through the medieval period. The most intensive urban development occurred during the Hellenistic and Roman eras, with extensive construction and occupation documented particularly in the first and second centuries CE. Stratigraphic and archaeoseismic evidence attest to significant earthquake damage during late antiquity, contributing to the city’s decline. The site’s remote mountainous setting has preserved substantial architectural remains and material culture, which are curated in regional museums and studied through multidisciplinary approaches combining archaeology, geology, and environmental sciences.

European travelers first recorded the ruins in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but systematic archaeological research began only in the 1990s. The ongoing Sagalassos Research Project integrates stratigraphic excavation, ceramic analysis, archaeobotany, and archaeoseismology to reconstruct the city’s historical development and urban fabric.

History

Prehistoric and Bronze Age Occupation

Human presence in the region of Sagalassos extends back to the early Holocene, with evidence of transient hunter-gatherer groups before the establishment of permanent settlements. By the Late Bronze Age, around the 14th century BCE, the site is likely referenced in Hittite texts as Salawassa, indicating its recognition within broader Anatolian networks. During this period, the area experienced successive cultural influences, including Phrygian and Lydian phases, prior to incorporation into the Pisidian territory. Although no large urban center existed at this time, archaeological data suggest small communities engaged in early settlement activities and regional interaction within the mountainous landscape.

Achaemenid Persian Period (6th–4th century BCE)

From the mid-6th century BCE, Sagalassos came under the control of the Achaemenid Persian Empire as part of the satrapy of Pisidia. The Pisidian inhabitants were noted in classical sources for their martial character and frequent raids into neighboring Anatolian regions. Young men from the area served as mercenaries in Persian armies, reflecting the region’s reputation for producing skilled warriors. Despite Persian sovereignty, the rugged terrain and strong clan structures allowed local groups to maintain a degree of autonomy and resistance. Archaeological evidence for Persian administrative presence at Sagalassos is lacking, but the site was integrated into the imperial framework, likely contributing military service and tribute.

Hellenistic Period (4th–2nd century BCE)

The conquest of the region by Alexander the Great in 333 BCE marked a significant turning point for Sagalassos. At that time, the city had a population estimated in the several thousands and rapidly adopted Hellenistic cultural norms, including the Greek language and urban institutions. Following Alexander’s death, control of Sagalassos passed through the hands of his successors—the Antigonids, possibly Lysimachus, the Seleucids, and ultimately the Attalid dynasty of Pergamon. During this era, Sagalassos emerged as a fortified regional center comparable in status to Selge and Termessos, commanding a territory protected by a network of defensive structures on the surrounding slopes. Urban expansion included the development of public spaces such as agoras and temples, reflecting the integration of Greek religious and civic practices.

Roman Period (2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE)

After the Attalid kingdom was bequeathed to Rome in 129 BCE, Sagalassos was incorporated into the Roman province of Asia. Between 39 and 25 BCE, the city was governed by Amyntas, a client king of Galatia, under whose rule it expanded its regional market influence. The urban area grew beyond the original Hellenistic fortifications, particularly eastward, with new residential quarters and monumental public buildings including a Doric fountain and temple. The construction of the via Sebaste under Emperor Augustus connected Sagalassos to Antiochia in Pisidia and the Pamphylian ports, facilitating trade and communication. The first three centuries CE witnessed considerable prosperity, with the erection of a theater accommodating approximately 9,000 spectators, extensive Roman baths, the Neon Library, a macellum (market hall), and multiple monumental nymphaea (public fountains). Emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138 CE) elevated Sagalassos to the status of the foremost city in Pisidia and a center for the imperial cult, as attested by statues and inscriptions. Local elites actively sponsored public monuments to assert their social standing. The city also became a significant center for pottery production, with specialized workshops operating from the 1st to the 6th centuries CE. Evidence of gladiatorial games and animal combats, such as a gladiator’s helmet, indicates the presence of organized entertainment.

Late Antiquity and Christianization (4th–7th century CE)

By the 4th century CE, Sagalassos had become a Christian bishopric, represented at the First Council of Constantinople in 381 CE. Religious tensions between Christian and pagan communities culminated in the destruction of the recently restored Neon Library around 400 CE. In response to regional instability, the city was fortified circa 400 CE with defensive walls and towers. A major earthquake in 518 CE caused extensive damage, but the city underwent monumental restoration efforts thereafter. The plague of 541–543 CE severely reduced the population, leading to labor shortages, famine, and economic decline. Public spaces were increasingly privatized, resulting in narrower streets and smaller porticoes, reflecting changes in urban administration and social organization. Another devastating earthquake around 590 CE inflicted heavy destruction on an already declining city. Despite partial abandonment, some burials continued near the ruins, and the population shifted toward a more rural and pastoral lifestyle. The city was finally deserted in the mid-7th century following a second destructive earthquake and pressures from Arab raids. During the subsequent Seljuk period, inhabitants likely relocated to the surrounding plains. Archaeological evidence also documents a fortified religious community or monastery at the site, destroyed in the 12th century CE.

Medieval and Post-Abandonment Periods

Following the mid-7th century abandonment, Sagalassos remained largely uninhabited, with erosion gradually covering the ruins. Limited activity persisted in the form of funerary use and small-scale rural occupation. The fortified monastery or religious community identified at the site, destroyed in the 12th century, represents one of the last phases of medieval presence. The site’s remote location and difficult access contributed to its preservation by limiting looting and large-scale destruction during later periods.

Modern Rediscovery and Archaeological Research (18th century–present)

The ruins of Sagalassos were first documented by European travelers in the early 18th century, notably by Paul Lucas in 1706. In 1824, British antiquarian Francis Vyvyan Jago Arundell identified the site as Sagalassos through epigraphic evidence. Detailed mapping was conducted by Polish art historian Count Karol Lanckoroński in the late 19th century. After a period of limited archaeological interest, systematic excavations resumed in the 1990s under the direction of Marc Waelkens of the Catholic University of Leuven. These investigations employ a multidisciplinary methodology, integrating archaeology, geology, geomorphology, archaeozoology, palynology, and archaeometry. Excavations have uncovered monumental public buildings, residential quarters, and pottery workshops, alongside significant finds such as colossal statues of Emperor Hadrian and other Antonine dynasty members. Genetic studies of skeletal remains from the medieval period and modern local populations indicate remarkable genetic continuity over two millennia. The site remains under active research and conservation, with a local heritage center supporting preservation and public engagement.

Daily Life and Importance by Period

Achaemenid Persian Period (6th–4th century BCE)

During the Achaemenid Persian dominion, the inhabitants of Sagalassos were organized into martial clans known for their independence and military prowess. Young men frequently served as mercenaries in Persian armies, reflecting the region’s reputation for producing skilled fighters. The local economy was predominantly rural, based on pastoralism and small-scale agriculture, with limited evidence of urban development. Religious practices likely combined indigenous Anatolian traditions with Persian influences, although no specific cultic sites from this period have been identified at Sagalassos. The social structure emphasized clan affiliations and military obligations rather than centralized civic institutions.

Hellenistic Period (4th–2nd century BCE)

The Hellenistic conquest introduced significant changes to daily life in Sagalassos. The population, estimated at several thousand, adopted Greek language and customs, including urban planning and civic organization. The city developed fortifications to protect its agricultural hinterland and controlled a territory comparable to neighboring centers such as Selge and Termessos. Public spaces such as agoras and temples dedicated to Greek deities like Apollo and Athena became focal points of religious and social activity. Residential architecture featured multi-room houses arranged on terraces adapted to the plateau’s topography. Economic diversification included increased trade and the emergence of specialized crafts, notably early pottery production. Social stratification became more pronounced, with a civic elite participating in local governance and sponsoring public works, alongside artisans and rural populations.

Roman Period (2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE)

Under Roman rule, Sagalassos experienced marked urban expansion and economic development. The city extended beyond its Hellenistic walls, particularly eastward, with new residential districts comprising large multi-terraced houses adorned with mosaic floors and painted wall decorations. The population was diverse, including Roman citizens, local Pisidians, and settlers from other regions. Inscriptions attest to the presence of magistrates such as duumviri and religious officials overseeing the imperial cult. The economy was multifaceted: pottery workshops produced fine wares and figurines for local use and export; agriculture remained vital, supported by amphorae and storage vessels; and trade flourished along the via Sebaste, connecting Sagalassos to regional markets and Mediterranean ports. Public amenities included a theater with a capacity of approximately 9,000 spectators, monumental baths with multiple pools, the Neon Library, and several monumental fountains. Religious life combined traditional Greco-Roman deities with the imperial cult, as evidenced by colossal statues of Emperor Hadrian and others. Entertainment such as gladiatorial games and animal fights took place in the theater. Education and cultural activities centered around the library and public festivals. Water management was sophisticated, although signs of scarcity appear in later periods. Social hierarchy was well defined, with wealthy elites sponsoring monuments and artisans sustaining craft production.

Late Antiquity and Christianization (4th–7th century CE)

The transition to Christianity transformed the religious and social landscape of Sagalassos. By the late 4th century, the city was a Christian bishopric, participating in ecclesiastical councils such as that of Constantinople in 381 CE. Conflicts between Christian and pagan communities led to the destruction of the Neon Library around 400 CE. The city was fortified anew around 400 CE in response to regional threats. Despite a major earthquake in 518 CE and the devastating plague of 541–543 CE, the population undertook monumental restorations, though economic decline and labor shortages followed. Public spaces were increasingly privatized, resulting in narrower streets and smaller porticoes, indicating a shift toward domestic and localized life. Another severe earthquake circa 590 CE further damaged the city, which was partially abandoned as inhabitants adopted a more rural, pastoral lifestyle. Burials continued near the ruins, reflecting some community continuity. The final abandonment in the mid-7th century followed a second destructive earthquake and external pressures such as Arab raids. Christian religious structures replaced earlier pagan temples, and ecclesiastical leadership became central to civic identity. The city’s role shifted from a prosperous urban center to a diminished bishopric facing demographic and economic challenges.

Medieval and Post-Abandonment Periods

After the city’s abandonment in the 7th century, limited rural occupation and funerary activity persisted, reflecting a significant decline in urban life. The discovery of a fortified monastery or religious community, destroyed in the 12th century, indicates continued religious presence and monastic activity during the medieval period. This community likely provided spiritual and social functions for a dispersed rural population. Economic activities were minimal, focused on subsistence agriculture and pastoralism in the surrounding plains. Social organization centered on monastic leadership rather than civic governance, marking a transition from urban municipality to ecclesiastical enclave. The gradual covering of ruins by erosion and lack of major rebuilding underscore the permanent shift away from Sagalassos as a regional urban center.

Remains

Architectural Features

Sagalassos is situated on a limestone plateau with sloping terrain ranging from approximately 1450 to 1700 meters in altitude. The urban area extends over multiple terraces and covers roughly 2.5 kilometers east-west and 1.5 kilometers north-south. The city’s layout includes two principal agoras—the Upper and Lower Agora—that functioned as central public spaces. The settlement expanded notably during the Hellenistic and Roman periods, with construction extending beyond the original Hellenistic fortifications, especially toward the east. Defensive walls and towers were added around 400 CE as part of Late Antique fortifications. The city’s water infrastructure comprises at least four monumental nymphaea dating to the 2nd century CE, although archaeological evidence indicates a decline in water availability during the later phases of occupation. Residential, civic, religious, and industrial buildings are distributed across the terraces, reflecting a complex and stratified urban fabric.

Construction techniques predominantly involve ashlar masonry using locally quarried limestone. Many buildings incorporate vaulted rooms and porticoes. The architectural remains include monumental public structures, large urban houses, religious buildings, and specialized workshops. Some areas show evidence of repurposing or partial abandonment during Late Antiquity, with a mixture of well-preserved and fragmentary remains.

Key Buildings and Structures

Theatre

The theatre, primarily constructed in the 2nd century CE, is the best-preserved monument at Sagalassos. Located on the southwestern slope of the city, it is distinguished as the highest-altitude theatre known globally. The stone-built auditorium accommodates approximately 9,000 spectators. The structure includes a semicircular seating area and a stage building, with substantial remains of supporting walls and vaults. The theatre dates to the Roman period and has not undergone significant alterations in subsequent phases.

Roman Baths

The Roman bath complex, built between circa 120 and 165 CE, is exceptionally well preserved, with two floors surviving. The baths feature typical components such as heated rooms (caldaria), cold pools (frigidaria), and water basins. Monumental restorations occurred in the late 4th or early 5th century CE and again after 500 CE. The baths remained partially in use until the early 7th century CE. In later phases, some floor areas were converted into latrines where human waste was collected, possibly mixed with lime to produce fertilizer for nearby agricultural fields. Niches within the baths housed colossal marble statues, including fragments of Emperor Hadrian and other members of the Antonine dynasty.

Neon Library

Constructed in the early 2nd century CE, the Neon Library exhibits architectural parallels with the Library of Celsus in Ephesus (114–117 CE). Only the lower portion of the rear wall belongs to the original construction phase. The stone podium includes niches for small statues and inscriptions honoring Neon and his family by the city council. Around 200 CE, a second construction phase added a brick wall at the rear of the podium. Structural issues with the roof led to a reduction in the hall’s size during this period, with the current side walls dating from this repair. A black-and-white mosaic floor was installed during a later restoration under Emperor Julian (361–363 CE). The central mosaic panel, now damaged, depicts a scene from the Trojan War showing Achilles bidding farewell to his mother Thetis.

Council Hall (Curia)

Near the city center, a council hall dating to circa 100 BCE was excavated. This building is the most significant structure related to the city’s political organization during the late Hellenistic period. Constructed with ashlar masonry, it comprises a main chamber used for council meetings. The remains include foundations and wall segments, confirming Sagalassos’s status as a polis (city-state) at that time.

Potters’ Quarter

Located east of the city center, the Potters’ Quarter contains two pottery workshops uncovered through excavation. One workshop produced fine wares intermittently from the 1st to the 5th century CE, while the other operated from the 5th century to the mid-6th century CE, specializing in figurines, lamps, and oinophoroi (travel flasks). Archaeometric analyses have identified local clay sources used by the potters. The workshops include kiln remains, workspaces, and abundant ceramic debris, indicating a specialized and likely industrial-scale ceramic production during the Imperial period.

Domestic Area (East Domestic Quarter)

Excavations beginning in 1995 on the southwestern slope near the theatre revealed a large urban mansion comprising at least 50 rooms arranged over three terraces. The complex includes residential quarters and service areas. Several smaller houses and shops around the main city squares have also been studied. These domestic structures are built with stone walls and feature courtyards and mosaic floors. The remains provide insight into the living conditions and social stratification within the city.

Imperial Cult Sanctuary

A Doric temple dedicated to Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius is situated on the city’s eastern slopes. Constructed in the late 2nd century CE, the temple features classical architectural elements such as columns and a cella (inner chamber). It served as the center for the imperial cult within the Pisidian federation (koinon). The temple’s foundations and partial wall remains survive, with architectural fragments recovered during excavation.

City Walls and Fortifications

Defensive walls and towers were constructed around 400 CE, enclosing the urban area as part of the city’s Late Antique fortification system. Built primarily of ashlar masonry, these fortifications reflect responses to regional instability. Within the site, a fortified monastery or religious community dating to the medieval period was identified; it was destroyed in the 12th century CE. The walls and fortifications survive in varying states, with some sections standing and others reduced to foundations.

Nymphaeum of Antoninus Pius

One of at least four monumental nymphaea dating to the 2nd century CE, the Nymphaeum of Antoninus Pius was excavated and reconstructed between 2009 and 2010. Officially reopened in August 2010, the structure includes stone basins and decorative elements typical of Roman public fountains. Archaeological evidence indicates a decline in water supply during the city’s later period, reflected in partially cut-off water outlets.

Other Monuments and Finds

Several busts of deities such as Ares, Hercules, Hermes, Zeus, Athena, and Poseidon dating to the Trajanic period have been recovered, representing significant examples of ancient sculpture. A colossal marble statue of Emperor Hadrian, approximately 4 to 5 meters tall, was found in fragments within the Roman baths. Fragments of similarly sized statues of Faustina the Elder and Marcus Aurelius were also discovered in the same area. These statues were constructed from marble blocks joined by metal clamps. The collapse of the apse structure housing these statues was caused by a major earthquake between the late 6th and early 7th centuries CE.

Other Remains

Surface surveys and geophysical prospections have revealed multiple streets, urban features, and water infrastructure such as fountains and nymphaea. Finds include ceramic debris, amphorae, glass fragments, slag, ash layers, and tools related to craft and economic activities. Some large buildings, possibly gymnasia or other public structures, have been explored through sondages to investigate Christianization and post-abandonment settlement phases. The full extent of residential quarters and industrial zones remains partially unexplored.

Preservation and Current Status

The theatre and Roman baths are among the best-preserved structures at Sagalassos, with the baths retaining two floors and the theatre maintaining much of its seating area. The Neon Library survives partially, with the lower rear wall and podium intact, while upper sections are fragmentary. The city walls and fortifications remain in varying states of preservation, with some sections standing and others reduced to foundations. The Nymphaeum of Antoninus Pius has undergone reconstruction using original materials where possible. Restoration projects have focused on the Roman baths and the Nymphaeum. The site’s remote location and natural limestone cover have protected it from extensive looting. Ongoing excavations and conservation efforts are led by the Sagalassos Research Project, employing multidisciplinary methods. Many artifacts are curated in the Burdur Museum, and a local heritage center named “Sagaleri” supports preservation and research activities.