Scupi: An Ancient Roman and Early Byzantine Site in North Macedonia
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Country: North Macedonia
Civilization: Byzantine, Roman
Remains: City
Context
The Scupi archaeological site is situated within the modern municipality of Skopje, positioned north of the Vardar River in North Macedonia. The site benefited from proximity to the Vardar’s water resources and fertile surrounding lands. This setting facilitated continuous human occupation from the Iron Age through the Roman and late antique periods. Scupi’s location at a crossroads in the central Balkans linked it to regional trade routes and imperial networks, making it a administrative and military center during Roman rule.
The landscape includes gently rolling terrain with access to natural resources that supported urban development and agriculture.
Excavations at Scupi commenced in the early twentieth century and have been conducted intermittently under Yugoslav and Macedonian archaeological authorities. These investigations have uncovered a range of material culture, including tombs, mosaics, coins, and architectural remains, which collectively illustrate the site’s evolving urban fabric. Preservation varies considerably due to subsequent urban encroachment and natural overgrowth.
History
Scupi’s archaeological record encapsulates a complex history of settlement, imperial integration, and religious transformation. Initially occupied during the Iron Age, the site later emerged as a Roman veteran colony within the province of Moesia Superior. Over several centuries, Scupi experienced military incursions, administrative restructuring, and the gradual Christianization of its population. The city’s trajectory culminated in its near-total destruction by a major earthquake in 518 CE, after which the population relocated to a nearby elevated site, laying the foundations for the modern city of Skopje. The site’s history thus reflects key developments in Roman provincial administration, late antique urban resilience, and early Byzantine adaptation in the central Balkans.
Pre-Roman and Early Occupation (12th century BCE – 1st century BCE)
Archaeological data indicate human presence in the Scupi area from at least the 12th century BCE, although evidence for continuous settlement near the later urban center diminishes after the late 6th century BCE. The broader region was inhabited by diverse groups, including Illyrians, Thracians, and Paeonians, yet none appear to have established permanent settlements precisely at the Scupi location during this early phase. By the late 3rd century BCE, the Dardani, an Illyrian tribe, had settled in the territory encompassing Scupi.
Historical sources and archaeological findings document the Dardani’s alliance with Rome against the Kingdom of Macedonia during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. Following Macedonia’s defeat in 170 BCE and its transformation into a Roman protectorate, the Dardani retained a degree of autonomy as a reward for their cooperation. However, tensions with Rome resurfaced in the 1st century BCE, prompting military campaigns by Roman commanders such as Sulla (85 BCE) and Gaius Scribonius Curio (75–73 BCE) aimed at pacifying the region ahead of conflicts with Mithradates VI. Marcus Antonius’s campaign in 59 BCE sought to secure Roman access to the Danube, and ultimately, Marcus Licinius Crassus subdued the Dardani around 29–28 BCE, incorporating their lands into the Roman sphere. Archaeological evidence suggests the establishment of a Roman military presence near Scupi during this period, possibly including a legionary camp.
Roman Foundation and Early Imperial Period (Late 1st century CE – 2nd century CE)
Under Emperor Domitian (81–96 CE), Scupi was formally founded as Colonia Flavia Scupinorum, a veteran colony settled by retired soldiers from legions such as Legio IV Scythica, Legio V Alaudae, Legio V Macedonica, and Legio VII Claudia. The colony was also known by variants including Colonia Flavia Felix Dardanorum and Colonia Flavia Aelia Scupi, with “Flavia” serving as a common abbreviated form. Following the administrative division of Moesia in 86 CE, Scupi became part of Moesia Superior and functioned as the administrative center of the district of Dardania.
Throughout the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, the city maintained a stable but modest urban profile. During Hadrian’s reign (117–138 CE), a theater was constructed, likely coinciding with his visit between 121 and 125 CE. Although the theater survives only in part and is obscured by vegetation and modern disturbances, it attests to the presence of Roman cultural institutions. The city’s urban plan featured a principal north-south street (cardo maximus) and an east-west street (decumanus), with surviving paving stones and column bases marking these axes.
Military Threats and Fortifications (3rd century CE)
The 3rd century CE was marked by increased instability in the region. Scupi was likely attacked during the Costoboci incursion around 170 CE, an event that precipitated the construction of stone fortifications shortly thereafter. These replaced earlier wooden and earth defenses, reflecting a strategic shift toward more durable urban protection. Later in the century, the city endured further damage during invasions by the Goths and Heruli between approximately 268 and 296 CE. Archaeological layers reveal destruction of earlier structures, followed by the erection of a large horreum (granary or warehouse) on the site of damaged buildings. The horreum’s substantial western wall remains visible despite overgrowth. Residential buildings dating to the 6th and 7th centuries CE were constructed atop earlier foundations in the western sector near the horreum, indicating some degree of continued occupation despite prior turmoil.
Late Roman and Early Christian Period (4th – 6th centuries CE)
Following the administrative reforms of Diocletian in the early 4th century CE, Scupi regained regional prominence as part of the Diocese of Moesia. The city continued to serve as a local administrative center and became an episcopal seat, with written sources attesting to its Christian bishopric. Emperor Theodosius I visited Scupi twice, in 379 and 388 CE, underscoring its significance within the late Roman Empire. Despite repeated devastations by Goths, Ostrogoths, and Huns during the 5th century, the city’s stone fortifications were reinforced to withstand these threats.
A large bathing complex, originally constructed in the 2nd century CE, remained in use until the 5th century and underwent several renovations. In the 6th century, Christian religious architecture was integrated into the urban fabric, including a basilica with an atrium built over the former caldarium (hot bath) of the baths. The southern portion of the horreum was incorporated into a new bathing complex during the 4th century, which functioned until the mid-6th century, likely abandoned following the earthquake of 518 CE. An early Christian basilica with an attached baptistery was constructed in the late 5th century atop a 4th-century public building north of the baths, remaining active into the 6th century. Funerary remains include two necropolises with visible funerary stelae and monuments located northwest and south of the site.
Decline and Abandonment (518 CE)
In 518 CE, a major earthquake caused near-total destruction of Scupi, as confirmed by stratigraphic evidence and contemporary accounts. The scale of devastation led the surviving population to relocate approximately four kilometers southeast to higher ground, where they established a fortified settlement. This new site gradually developed into the modern city of Skopje. Following the earthquake, archaeological layers at the original site show a marked decline in rebuilding activity, signaling the end of its urban prominence. This relocation reflects broader late antique trends of urban contraction and strategic repositioning in response to natural disasters and security challenges in the Balkans.
Remains
Architectural Features
The archaeological remains at Scupi encompass a variety of urban structures dating primarily from the 1st through the 7th centuries CE. The city’s layout is defined by a principal north-south street (cardo maximus) and an east-west street (decumanus), with surviving fragments of paving stones and column bases marking these thoroughfares. Construction techniques include substantial stone masonry for fortifications and public buildings, alongside the use of Roman concrete (opus caementicium) in baths and storage facilities. The architectural assemblage reflects a combination of civic, residential, military, and religious functions. Evidence of urban contraction and adaptive reuse is apparent following the 3rd-century invasions and the 518 CE earthquake. Vegetation overgrowth and subsequent urban development have left many remains fragmentary, though several key structures retain substantial visible elements.
Key Buildings and Structures
City Walls and Fortifications
The city’s eastern fortifications were constructed shortly after the Costoboci attack circa 170 CE, replacing earlier wooden and earth defenses with robust stone walls. These fortifications were reinforced again in the 5th century CE in response to increased pressure from invading groups such as the Goths, Ostrogoths, and Huns. Adjacent to the eastern walls, surface traces of extramural structures are visible, though their specific functions remain undetermined. The surviving masonry walls delineate the city’s eastern boundary near the theater and demonstrate the strategic emphasis on defense during periods of instability.
Theater
The theater at Scupi was erected during Emperor Hadrian’s reign, likely between 121 and 125 CE, possibly coinciding with his documented visit to the city. Excavations have uncovered significant remains of the seating area and stage (scenae), which have been conserved. However, the northern and western portions of the stage have been largely destroyed by a modern cemetery. The theater is situated outside the main archaeological park at the eastern edge of the site and is heavily overgrown during summer months, limiting detailed visibility. Its presence attests to the city’s engagement with Roman cultural and entertainment practices.
Western Insula (Residential and Horreum Complex)
Immediately inside the main site entrance, the western insula contains a cluster of small residential buildings dating to the 6th and 7th centuries CE. These structures overlay earlier buildings of uncertain function. The eastern portion of this insula is dominated by a horreum, a granary or storage facility, constructed in the late 3rd century CE atop remains of earlier 2nd-3rd century CE buildings destroyed likely during the Gothic/Heruli invasion around 269 CE.
The horreum’s western wall remains relatively well preserved despite vegetation. In the 4th century CE, the southern part of the horreum was incorporated into a new bathing complex that remained in use until the 6th century CE, probably abandoned after the 518 CE earthquake. The northern part of the horreum and later baths was replaced in the 6th century CE by a building with an apse, sometimes identified as a basilica, though its exact function is unclear. The western insula is bounded on the east by the cardo maximus, where a few column bases and paving stones survive.
Large Bathing Complex (Eastern Insula)
Located across the cardo maximus from the western insula, the large bathing complex was constructed in the 2nd century CE and remained in use until the 5th century CE, undergoing several renovations. In the 6th century CE, a Christian basilica with an atrium was built over the caldarium (hot bath) in the southern section of the baths. Recent excavations in the eastern and southeastern parts of the complex revealed well-preserved rooms interpreted as cold water pools and auxiliary spaces, including a wall with some intact frescoes. The baths are bounded on the north by a decumanus street, with visible paving stones marking this boundary. The complex illustrates the continuity and transformation of public amenities from pagan to Christian contexts.
Urban Villa
North of the baths, across the decumanus, stands an urban villa constructed in the late 3rd century CE and used until the 5th century CE. The villa’s western section contained a private bathing complex, indicating elite residential comfort. Recent excavations in the northern part of the villa uncovered well-preserved architectural elements and less overgrown areas, providing clearer views of the structure’s layout and construction techniques. The villa’s location and features reflect the presence of affluent inhabitants within the city.
Early Christian Basilica with Baptistery
To the north of the urban villa, partially overlaying it, is an early Christian basilica with an attached baptistery, constructed in the late 5th century CE atop a 4th-century public building. The basilica’s layout includes a nave and aisles, with the baptistery situated adjacent to the main structure. This building remained in use into the 6th century CE and exemplifies the Christianization of Scupi’s urban landscape during late antiquity.
Forum and Civic Basilica
The forum of Scupi was located farther south of the main archaeological site. Part of the civic basilica associated with the forum has been identified, though it lies on private land and is not accessible for public viewing. The remains include foundational elements consistent with the rectangular plan typical of basilicas used for administrative and judicial functions in Roman cities.
Burial Sites
Two necropolises have been documented near Scupi. The northern necropolis lies approximately 500 meters northwest along Street 10, just east of the road. This area is overgrown but contains several funerary stelae and monuments visible in excavated sections. The southern necropolis is located south of the site, across from the Hotel Evro Set, currently a construction zone. Both cemeteries include stone markers and tomb structures dating to the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, providing insight into funerary customs and social stratification.
Other Remains
Surface traces of extramural structures are visible near the eastern fortifications, though their precise functions remain undetermined. The cardo maximus street shows scattered column bases and paving stones where cleared. The site overall is heavily overgrown, with limited clearing allowing only partial views of many structures. Archaeologists maintain a building near the center of the site for research purposes. The Skopje Aqueduct, located a few kilometers from Scupi, is often attributed to the Roman period but likely dates to after the 6th century CE and leads toward the later fortress rather than the ancient city.
Archaeological Discoveries
Excavations at Scupi have yielded a diverse assemblage of artifacts spanning from the Iron Age through the Byzantine period. Numerous coins have been recovered, including specimens from Roman emperors such as Domitian, Hadrian, and Theodosius I. Inscriptions include dedicatory texts and official markers related to the veteran colony foundation and Christian episcopal presence.
Religious artifacts include statuettes of Venus and Apollo, altars, and lead votive offerings dedicated to the Danubian Rider. Many finds originate from domestic quarters, public buildings, and necropolises, collectively illuminating various aspects of urban life and religious practice at Scupi.
Preservation and Current Status
The preservation state of Scupi’s ruins varies considerably. The eastern fortifications and horreum walls remain relatively robust, though overgrown. The theater’s seating and stage survive partially but have been damaged by modern cemetery use. The large baths and urban villa retain well-preserved architectural elements, including frescoed walls in some rooms. The early Christian basilica and baptistery survive in fragmentary form.
Vegetation and limited clearing restrict visibility across much of the site. Restoration efforts have focused on stabilizing exposed structures rather than full reconstruction. Archaeological teams conduct periodic clearing of overgrowth, with the most recent reported in spring 2024. Conservation and research are managed by national heritage authorities, with ongoing excavations targeting the baths and villa areas. The site remains vulnerable to natural and human factors but benefits from active study and preservation initiatives.
Unexcavated Areas
Several portions of the ancient city remain unexcavated or insufficiently studied. The forum area south of the main site is largely inaccessible due to private ownership. Some extramural zones near the eastern fortifications show surface traces but lack systematic excavation. Urban sectors beneath modern development have not been explored. Limited funding and conservation policies restrict extensive new excavations. Future research plans focus on the eastern baths and northern villa sectors, though large parts of the site remain covered by vegetation or urban infrastructure, limiting comprehensive archaeological investigation.
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