Palmyra: An Ancient Roman City in Syria

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Country: Syria

Civilization: Byzantine, Roman

Remains: City

History

The ruins of Palmyra are located in the city of Palmyra, within the Homs Governorate of modern-day Syria. This ancient site was developed primarily by the Palmyrene civilization, which flourished under Roman rule. Palmyra became a significant cultural and commercial center in the Roman Empire, especially during the 3rd century AD.

Early Development

Palmyra, known in antiquity as Tadmor, was first recorded in the 2nd millennium BC in Assyrian texts. Its location in the Syrian desert made it a crucial oasis for caravans traveling between Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean. By the Hellenistic period, Palmyra had developed into a prosperous settlement that absorbed both Greek cultural elements and local Semitic traditions.

Roman Incorporation

Palmyra came under Roman control in the 1st century AD, initially as part of the province of Syria. It retained a degree of autonomy and flourished as a caravan city linking the Roman Empire with Persia, India, and China through the Silk Road trade routes. During the reign of Emperor Tiberius, Palmyra was formally incorporated into the Roman Empire, but it continued to prosper through its position as a commercial hub.

The High Imperial Period

In the 2nd and early 3rd centuries AD, Palmyra reached its peak. Monumental construction projects reshaped the city, including the Great Colonnade, the Temple of Bel, the theatre, and the Tetrapylon. Under Emperor Septimius Severus (193–211 AD), the Monumental Arch was constructed to link sections of the colonnaded street and to commemorate Roman victories over the Parthians. This period marked Palmyra’s transformation into a major urban and cultural center of the eastern provinces.

The Zenobia Revolt

In the mid-3rd century, Palmyra briefly challenged Roman authority under Queen Zenobia, who declared independence and established the Palmyrene Empire (267–273 AD). Zenobia’s forces occupied much of the eastern Roman provinces, including Egypt, before being defeated by Emperor Aurelian in 272 AD. After the revolt, Palmyra was reintegrated into the Roman Empire but never regained its former prosperity.

Late Antiquity and Decline

In the following centuries, Palmyra remained a fortified settlement but experienced gradual decline. It became a Byzantine garrison town and later fell under Arab control in the 7th century AD.

Rediscovery in the Modern Era

By the 17th and 18th centuries, European travelers began visiting Palmyra. The ruins were documented in detail by Robert Wood, James Dawkins, and Giovanni Battista Borra, whose engravings published in 1753 brought international attention to the site. These works made Palmyra one of the best-known ancient cities of the Near East in early modern scholarship.

During the French Mandate in Syria, restoration campaigns were carried out in the 1930s, including work on the Monumental Arch, the Temple of Bel, and the colonnades. Palmyra became one of Syria’s most prominent archaeological sites, attracting tourism and academic study throughout the 20th century.

In May 2015, Palmyra fell to ISIS, who deliberately destroyed parts of the site, including the Monumental Arch, sections of the Temple of Bel, and funerary towers. The Monumental Arch was blown up in October 2015. When Syrian forces recaptured Palmyra in March 2016, only fragments of the arch remained. UNESCO and the United Nations condemned the destruction as a crime against cultural heritage.

In 2016, a replica of the Monumental Arch’s central section was created in Italy from Egyptian marble using 3D modeling technology. Measuring 6.1 meters high, it was first displayed in London’s Trafalgar Square before being exhibited in New York, Florence, and other cities. The project aimed both to raise awareness and to prepare for eventual reconstruction in Syria.

Efforts to restore Palmyra’s monuments have continued. In November 2021, new restoration phases began with support from Syrian and Russian institutions. Plans as of 2022 included anastylosis of the Monumental Arch, made possible by the survival of many original stones. Work also extended to the theatre and parts of the colonnade, highlighting international cooperation to preserve one of the ancient world’s most iconic cities.

Remains

Great Colonnade

The Great Colonnade was the central axis of Palmyra, stretching for over one kilometer through the heart of the city. Originally lined with more than one thousand Corinthian columns, it linked the Temple of Bel in the east with the funerary quarter in the west, connecting civic and religious buildings along its route. Several stretches of the colonnade still survive.

Monumental Arch

Built in the early 3rd century AD, the Monumental Arch marked the transition between the eastern and central sections of the Great Colonnade. Its design cleverly concealed a 30-degree bend in the street alignment. The arch had a large central passage flanked by two smaller side openings and was richly decorated with reliefs of plants, acanthus leaves, and geometric motifs. Destroyed in 2015, many of its original stones remain and can be reassembled through anastylosis. A modern replica produced with 3D modeling demonstrated the precision of its original design.

Temple of Bel

The Temple of Bel, dedicated in AD 32 and later expanded, was the largest and most important sanctuary of Palmyra. Its plan combined Roman temple architecture with Near Eastern traditions, featuring a large walled courtyard, monumental gateway, and an inner cella with altars. Although the temple was badly damaged, portions of the entrance and inner sanctuary survive, illustrating the scale and hybrid style of Palmyrene religious architecture.

Tetrapylon

The Tetrapylon stood at a crossroads of the Great Colonnade and served as a monumental marker of urban planning. Each corner of the square platform carried a group of four columns, some made of imported pink granite from Egypt. Much of the structure was destroyed in recent conflicts, but fragments of the pedestals and column bases remain in place.

Theatre

The Roman theatre of Palmyra dates to the 2nd century AD and was partially reconstructed before the war. The semicircular cavea with its stone seating and the remains of the stage wall survive, providing evidence of the city’s cultural life and its integration of Roman entertainment architecture.

Funerary Towers

Outside the city walls, the Valley of the Tombs preserves the remains of Palmyra’s distinctive funerary towers. These multi-storey tombs, constructed between the 1st century BC and 3rd century AD, combined elaborate stone facades with richly decorated interior burial chambers. Many were destroyed in recent decades, but foundations and sections of the towers still stand.

Other Structures

Additional remains include the agora with its surrounding porticoes, the baths complex with preserved sections of hypocaust heating, and smaller sanctuaries dedicated to local deities.