Byblos, Lebanon: One of the World’s Oldest Continuously Inhabited Cities
Table of Contents
Visitor Information
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Country: Lebanon
Civilization: Byzantine, Crusader, Egyptian, Greek, Phoenician, Roman
Remains: City
Context
Ancient Byblos is situated on the eastern Mediterranean coastline within present-day Lebanon, encompassed by the modern city of Byblos (Jbeil). The site occupies a strategic position near the shore, where a natural harbor meets fertile coastal plains and the foothills of the Mount Lebanon range. This geographic setting provided access to maritime routes and inland resources, facilitating sustained human occupation and economic activity over millennia.
Archaeological investigations have demonstrated continuous habitation at Byblos from the Neolithic period through the Bronze Age and into the Roman era. Successive cultural phases have been identified, including Canaanite, Phoenician, Hellenistic, and Roman influences, each marked by distinct material culture and urban development.
Byblos’s archaeological integrity benefits from systematic excavations initiated in the early 20th century by French and Lebanese teams. These efforts uncovered well-preserved remains spanning several millennia, including fortifications, religious complexes, residential quarters, and burial grounds. The site’s preservation enables detailed study of its long occupation sequence, contributing valuable insights into ancient urbanism, trade networks, and religious practices in the eastern Mediterranean.
History
Ancient Byblos represents one of the Levant’s longest continuously inhabited urban centers, reflecting a complex history of cultural and political transformations from the Neolithic through the early Islamic period. Its coastal location fostered extensive maritime trade and cultural interactions linking Egypt, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the broader Mediterranean. Over time, Byblos evolved from a modest Neolithic settlement into a prominent city-state, a key Phoenician port under Egyptian suzerainty, and later a Roman municipium. The city’s trajectory mirrors wider regional dynamics, including imperial conquests, shifting economic networks, and religious developments documented through archaeological and epigraphic evidence.
Prehistoric and Chalcolithic Period (c. 8800–3100 BCE)
Initial settlement at Byblos dates to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B period (circa 8800–7000 BCE), when small communities established dwellings on the seaward slope of a hill with fertile soils and a sheltered landing area. Excavations reveal early architectural forms including small elliptical huts constructed from pebbles and stones, evolving into rectangular houses with plastered floors by the Chalcolithic period. Material culture from these phases includes diverse pottery styles, flint tools, and burial customs such as jar burials and chamber tombs. The Late Chalcolithic (circa 4500–3600 BCE) introduced copper artifacts, including a copper hook, signaling the advent of metallurgy and increasing social complexity.
Burial practices involved jar interments accompanied by an average of three grave goods per tomb, comprising ceramics, metal objects, stone tools, and personal adornments like figurines and beads. Decorative motifs on burial jars include incisions, horizontal bands, and relief designs. Byblos participated in early long-distance trade networks, exchanging materials such as obsidian, flint, and lapis lazuli, and exhibiting cultural influences from Southern Anatolia and Northern Mesopotamia.
Early Bronze Age (c. 3300–2000 BCE)
By the Early Bronze Age, Byblos had transformed into a substantial urban center spanning approximately 5 to 7 hectares and supporting an estimated population of around 2,000 inhabitants. The city’s urban plan featured organized neighborhoods with streets and houses arranged around open courtyards, which served as spaces for production activities including food processing, weaving, and metalworking. Residential structures were typically rectangular, often T-shaped, with multiple rooms and plastered floors in earlier phases.
Byblos emerged as a wealthy city-state engaged in extensive trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Cyprus, and Crete. It became a principal exporter of cedar wood, a resource highly valued in Egypt, as attested by Egyptian texts from the Fourth Dynasty (circa 2600 BCE). The Temple of Baalat Gebal, constructed around 2800 BCE, served as the city’s main religious center, dedicated to the patron goddess Baalat-Gebal, who was syncretized with Egyptian deities such as Hathor and later Isis. Defensive walls enclosing the city date back to the 4th millennium BCE, featuring two main gates: an eastern gate connecting to the mainland and a northern gate leading to the sea and harbor. The economy was structured around a palatial system with production and storage occurring within houses and palaces, facilitating Byblos’s role as a commercial hub linking eastern and western regions.
Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–1550 BCE)
During the Middle Bronze Age, Byblos consolidated its status as a regional power influenced by Amorite culture and Mesopotamian political and religious traditions. The city constructed significant cultic temples, notably the Temple of the Obelisks around 1900 BCE, dedicated to the war god Resheph. This temple contained numerous obelisks and a large central stone betyl, serving as a major religious site. Excavations of the royal necropolis uncovered nine royal tombs from this period, some containing Egyptian artifacts and inscriptions, reflecting close diplomatic ties with Egypt.
The political system combined kingship with priestly authority, with rulers adopting Amorite names and practices. Byblos maintained active trade in textiles, glass, faience, and metal goods, and was a center for metalworking and ivory craftsmanship. Locally produced scarabs and cylinder seals exhibit Egyptianizing iconography. The social hierarchy comprised an aristocracy of officials, merchants, landowners, and priests, supported by a middle class of farmers, fishermen, and craftsmen. Governance involved councils and assemblies, indicating an aristocratic republic structure.
Late Bronze Age and Egyptian Vassalage (c. 1550–1200 BCE)
Under the New Kingdom of Egypt, Byblos functioned as a vassal city-state governed by local kings who paid tribute and maintained diplomatic and military relations with Egyptian pharaohs. The Amarna letters from the 14th century BCE document correspondence from Byblos rulers such as Rib-Hadda and Ili-Rapih, appealing for Egyptian military assistance against regional adversaries. The city thrived as a maritime port exporting cedar wood, olive oil, wine, and resins, while importing luxury goods. The Temple of the Obelisks remained active, and the cult of the Lady of Byblos persisted.
Egyptian influence permeated architecture, religious practices, and artifacts, including scarabs, statues, and inscriptions. The Ahiram sarcophagus, dating to circa 1000 BCE, bears the earliest known Phoenician alphabet inscription, marking a pivotal cultural development. Prosperity under Pharaoh Ramesses II is evidenced by his commissioning of a chapel within the Temple of the Obelisks, underscoring the city’s importance within the Egyptian imperial sphere.
Iron Age and Assyrian Period (c. 1200–550 BCE)
Throughout the Iron Age, Byblos remained a prominent Phoenician city and Mediterranean port, sustaining trade and cultural connections with Egypt and neighboring regions. The city came under Assyrian influence during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, with local kings paying tribute to rulers such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal. Archaeological evidence indicates the construction of massive fortifications during this period, reflecting military pressures from Assyrian campaigns.
Inscriptions attest to kings such as Sibittibaal, Urumilki, Milkiasaph, and Yehawmelek. Although Byblos experienced some decline relative to earlier periods, it retained regional significance under Assyrian suzerainty. The city’s fortifications and urban fabric reflect adaptations to the geopolitical realities of the Iron Age Levant.
Achaemenid Persian Rule (c. 550–330 BCE)
Under Achaemenid Persian dominion, Byblos was one of four Phoenician vassal kingdoms permitted to maintain local dynastic kings who paid tribute to the Persian emperor. The city prospered economically and politically, serving as a regional administrative center. Local coinage was minted, exhibiting typological shifts from Attic to Phoenician weight standards. Inscriptions from kings such as Shipitbaal III and Yehawmilk document political subordination to Persia alongside local prosperity and religious syncretism.
Byblos played a significant role in extensive trade networks extending from India to Morocco and from the Black Sea to the Red Sea. The city’s integration into the Persian imperial system facilitated its participation in transregional commerce and cultural exchange.
Hellenistic Period (c. 330–50 BCE)
Following Alexander the Great’s conquest in 332 BCE, Byblos opened its gates and became part of the Hellenistic world, likely under Ptolemaic administration. The city experienced dense urban development, including the construction of new religious sanctuaries such as a temple on the ruins of the Temple of Resheph and possibly a Hellenistic temple dedicated to the Lady of Byblos. Material culture, including amphora handles, indicates a process of cultural Hellenization among the predominantly Phoenician population.
Byblos minted coins bearing the names of Seleucid kings, though these circulated primarily within the local economy. Civic governance involved a council of elders, with officials such as a gumnasiarchos overseeing the gymnasium, reflecting the adoption of Greek-style civic institutions. Despite these developments, Byblos held a secondary regional role compared to larger Phoenician cities like Tyre and Sidon, maintaining a hybrid identity blending Phoenician traditions with Hellenistic influences.
Roman Conquest and Imperial Period (c. 50 BCE–650 CE)
Incorporated into the Roman province of Lebanon, Byblos flourished as a municipium and a favored summer retreat for Roman governors. The city’s infrastructure expanded to include the via Romana, aqueducts, water distribution systems, baths, temples, and a theatre constructed in the early 3rd century CE. Coins minted in Byblos bear the names of Roman emperors, including Macrinus, whose coinage depicts the temple of Baalat Gebal.
Monumental public works such as a nymphaeum and colonnaded streets extending over 700 meters reflect urban development. Herod the Great contributed to the city’s fortifications and possibly constructed a gymnasium. Christianity spread during this period, with Byblos becoming a bishopric and experiencing rapid growth. Pagan temples on the acropolis were maintained and renovated until the decline of paganism, illustrating religious continuity and transformation within the city’s fabric.
Crusader, Mamluk, and Ottoman Periods (12th century–1918)
During the medieval era, Byblos was incorporated into the Crusader County of Tripoli and governed by the Genoese Embriaco family, who established the hereditary Lordship of Gibelet. The population comprised Latin Christian settlers, local Levantine inhabitants, and military personnel. The Embriacos constructed Byblos Castle, which served as a strategic military base. The city changed hands multiple times, falling to Saladin in 1187, briefly returning to Crusader control, and ultimately being conquered by Mamluk Sultan Baibars in 1266.
Despite the Mamluk conquest, the city’s fortifications were restored, and it avoided major destruction. Under Ottoman rule from 1516 to 1918, Byblos remained a regional town with limited political autonomy. The population was diverse, including Muslim and Christian communities, and economic life centered on agriculture, small-scale crafts, and coastal trade. Urban structures reflected Ottoman architectural styles, with mosques and churches serving local congregations. Throughout these periods, Byblos’s role shifted from a major Mediterranean port to a fortified medieval town and later to a modest provincial center, mirroring broader regional political and economic transformations.
Daily Life and Importance by Period
Hellenistic Period (c. 330–50 BCE)
During the Hellenistic era, Byblos’s population remained predominantly Phoenician but increasingly incorporated Greek cultural elements following Alexander the Great’s conquest. Civic administration was conducted by a council of elders, with officials such as the gumnasiarchos overseeing the gymnasium, an institution for education and athletic training. This reflects the integration of Greek-style civic institutions alongside traditional Phoenician governance.
Economic activities continued to revolve around maritime trade, with amphora handles and other artifacts attesting to commerce in wine, oil, and other goods. Local coinage bearing Seleucid rulers’ names indicates monetary autonomy within the Hellenistic framework. Artisans produced goods blending Phoenician and Hellenistic styles, supporting a diverse mercantile and craft economy. Residential areas became more densely built, reflecting urban growth.
Religious life included sanctuaries rebuilt on earlier temple sites, such as the Temple of Resheph and possibly a Hellenistic temple to the Lady of Byblos. Cultic activities and festivals persisted, blending Phoenician deities with Hellenistic religious elements. Although Byblos held a secondary regional role compared to larger Phoenician cities, it maintained local administrative autonomy under Ptolemaic or Seleucid oversight, embodying a transitional urban identity.
Roman Conquest and Imperial Period (c. 50 BCE–650 CE)
Under Roman rule, Byblos attained municipium status within the province of Lebanon, integrating into imperial administrative and cultural networks. The population comprised local Phoenicians alongside Roman settlers and officials, as evidenced by inscriptions and coinage bearing emperors’ names such as Macrinus. Urban governance featured magistrates and councils managing civic affairs.
Economic life flourished with extensive infrastructure including the via Romana, aqueducts, and baths. Workshops produced pottery, glass, and metal goods for local use and export. Maritime trade remained vital, and the city’s role as a summer retreat for Roman governors indicates its social prestige. Dietary remains confirm consumption of bread, olives, wine, and fish, consistent with Mediterranean patterns. Domestic interiors featured mosaic floors and painted walls, reflecting Roman artistic influence.
Public buildings such as the theatre and nymphaeum hosted cultural events. Herod the Great’s contributions to fortifications and possibly a gymnasium underscore urban development. Religious life was diverse, with pagan temples on the acropolis maintained until the rise of Christianity, which spread rapidly, establishing Byblos as a bishopric. Christian ecclesiastical governance coexisted with lingering pagan practices during the early imperial period, positioning Byblos as a regional administrative and religious center balancing Phoenician heritage with Roman imperial structures.
Crusader, Mamluk, and Ottoman Periods (12th century–1918)
In the medieval period, Byblos transitioned from a Romanized city to a fortified Crusader stronghold under the Genoese Embriaco family, who established the hereditary Lordship of Gibelet. The population included Latin Christian settlers, local Levantine inhabitants, and military personnel. Social hierarchy was dominated by Crusader nobility within a feudal system supporting knights and retainers.
Economic activities focused on military provisioning, agriculture, and limited trade. The construction of Byblos Castle provided defense and administrative control. Markets supplied local needs, with goods transported via land and sea routes along the Levantine coast. Daily life reflected the martial and religious character of the Crusader period, with Latin Christian rites prevailing alongside residual Eastern Christian communities. The castle and town served as focal points for social and religious gatherings.
Following Saladin’s conquest in 1187 and subsequent Mamluk control under Sultan Baibars, Byblos retained its fortifications and administrative functions, though its political significance diminished. The population was diverse, including Muslim and Christian communities. Economic life was primarily agrarian, supplemented by small-scale crafts and coastal trade.
Remains
Architectural Features
Byblos preserves a complex urban fabric developed over millennia, with archaeological remains spanning from the Neolithic through the Roman period. The city was enclosed by defensive walls originating in the 4th millennium BCE, which were repeatedly rebuilt and expanded, notably around 2700 BCE and again during the late 8th or 7th century BCE under Assyrian influence. These fortifications included two principal gates: the northern “Port Gate” providing access to the harbor and the eastern land gate. The walls enclosed residential quarters and sacred precincts, reflecting a concentric urban plan with streets radiating toward central religious complexes.
Construction techniques evolved from early mudbrick and stone foundations to dressed ashlar masonry in later periods. Religious and civic buildings often employed large dressed stones laid horizontally, sometimes imitating brick bonding patterns. The city’s architecture includes monumental temples, royal palaces, domestic houses, and public infrastructure such as aqueducts and paved streets. The urban layout transitioned from irregular, topography-driven street patterns in early phases to more orthogonal arrangements during the Roman expansion northeast of the acropolis.
Key Buildings and Structures
Temple of Baalat Gebal (Lady of Byblos)
Constructed circa 2800 BCE, the Temple of Baalat Gebal was the principal religious edifice in Byblos, dedicated to the female deity Baalat-Gebal, associated with Egyptian Hathor and later Isis. The temple complex includes the adjacent Temple of the Colossi, with their facades arranged perpendicularly. Built on a raised platform possibly resembling a ziggurat, the temple features a bent-axis entrance requiring a 90° turn. The main entrance for the king and priests was on the east, leading to a large courtyard with an altar, while the general public accessed the temple through a northern door.
The northern section contained two chambers likely used for storage, and the southern part comprised three rooms probably serving administrative and lodging functions for temple staff. Circular alabaster offering tables with dedicatory inscriptions were found within. Foundation jars beneath the pavement, dating prior to the end of Egypt’s 6th Dynasty, contained numerous artifacts including scarabs, cylinder seals, vases, beads, gold figurines, and bronze pins. The temple’s walls were constructed with dressed stones laid horizontally in a hypostyle hall style. Circular brick basins for ablution and benches lined the inner walls. The temple plan resembled a large private house and may have had two floors. It remained in use and was elaborately rebuilt during the Greco-Roman period, with gold decorations added during the Persian era as attested by King Yehawmelek’s stele.
Temple of the Colossi
Part of the Baalat Gebal temple complex, the Temple of the Colossi is distinguished by four colossal statues lining the structure. It shares a close spatial and functional relationship with the main temple, forming a religious compound with perpendicular facades. The temple was maintained and renovated through various periods, including the Roman era.
Temple in L
Dating to the early 3rd millennium BCE, the Temple in L was one of Byblos’s longest-lasting religious sites, probably dedicated to a male deity, Baal. The complex included a sacred precinct, a forecourt, and two auxiliary sections likely used as priestly accommodations. Two enormous obelisks stood within the temple courtyard, alongside a central stone betyl representing the god. This temple was later superseded by the construction of the Temple of the Obelisks.
Temple of the Obelisks
Constructed around 1900 BCE atop the earlier Temple in L, the Temple of the Obelisks was dedicated to the Canaanite war god Resheph. It contained 26 obelisks and a large central stone betyl. Access was via a short staircase and passage through an antechamber leading to the cella (inner sanctuary). The eastern section served utilitarian functions, and an annexed chapel commissioned by Ramses II was part of the complex.
Excavations uncovered eight rich deposits beneath the temple walls and courtyard, including bronze figurines, weapons, scarabs, bronze pins, torcs, helixes, spearheads, and gold figurines. Deposit F in the antechamber contained 262 faience figurines representing eleven animal species, likely imported from Egypt and dated between 1750 and 1650 BCE. The temple was a focal point of cultic activity during the Middle Bronze Age.
Sacred Precincts (Enceinte Sacrée)
The earliest cult temple at Byblos, dating to Early Bronze IA (circa 3300 BCE), the Sacred Precincts were enclosed by a curvilinear masonry wall that likely included a sacred spring. The precinct remained in use through the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. A stone anchor bearing the Egyptian hieroglyph “NFR” was found integrated into the temple masonry. Foundation deposits beneath the pavement contained inscriptions from the Egyptian Old Kingdom, indicating early cultural connections.
Sacred Pond
Situated between the Temple of Baalat Gebal and the Temple in L, the Sacred Pond was an enclosed water feature with three quays, including a 30-meter paved quay approximately one meter wide. A staircase of seven to eight steps descended from road level to the water, and a gutter system channeled rainwater onto the paved area. The pond likely served ritual or practical functions within the sacred precinct.
Royal Tombs / Royal Necropolis
The Royal Necropolis contains nine royal tombs, with four dating to Egypt’s 12th Dynasty (circa 1900 BCE) and others possibly from the end of the Middle Bronze Age to the beginning of the Late Bronze Age. Tombs I–IV belong to the Middle Bronze Age, while tombs V–IX date to Late Bronze Age II. The tomb of King Ahiram, dating to the time of Ramses II, is notable for its large sarcophagus carved from a single rock block with a stone lid. This sarcophagus bears the earliest known Phoenician alphabet inscription.
The tombs contained rich funerary furniture, including reused Egyptian sarcophagi, amethyst scarabs, and silver teapots with Mycenaean characteristics. Artifacts bearing names of Egyptian pharaohs and stylistic influences from Egypt were found, underscoring diplomatic and cultural connections during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages.
Royal Palace
Located on the upper hill behind the Temple of Baalat Gebal, the Royal Palace dates at least to Early Bronze III. It comprises East, West, and North wings. The West and North wings likely served the royal family, storage, and production activities, while the East wing was reserved for the king and his official business. A central throne room is flanked by three rooms. Archaeological evidence suggests possible stairs leading down to the shore and the main port, linking the palace to maritime activities.
Necropolis K
Dating to 1750–1550 BCE (Middle Bronze Age), Necropolis K consists of numerous subterranean interconnected rooms accessed via a well. The necropolis is notable for the abundance of Middle Bronze Age Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery vessels found within, indicating extensive trade or cultural contacts during this period.
Tower Temple
Constructed at the end of the 3rd millennium BCE, the Tower Temple features thick walls and an imposing staircase, suggesting a tall structure possibly reaching approximately 20 meters in height. Stone anchors were integrated into its masonry. The building’s form resembles a tower, though its precise function remains architectural rather than military.
Defense Walls of Byblos
The city’s defensive walls originate in the 4th millennium BCE and were extensively reworked from the early 3rd millennium BCE, around 2700 BCE. The walls enclosed the city and its sacred precincts, with two main gates: the northern “Port Gate” and the eastern land gate. Massive fortifications were constructed or rebuilt during the late 8th or 7th century BCE under Assyrian influence. The walls were restored by Mamluk Sultan Baybars after 1266, preserving their medieval form.
Roman Temples on the Acropolis
Three Roman temples have been identified on the acropolis, all continuously renovated until the decline of paganism. One is the Temple of the Lady of Byblos (Baalat Gebal), another is the Temple of the Colossi lined with four colossal statues, and the third is the Great Roman Temple, discovered above the original site of the Obelisk Temple. These temples exhibit Roman architectural features and were integral to the city’s religious landscape during the Imperial period.
Roman Theatre
Constructed in the early 3rd century CE on the northeast side of the acropolis, the Roman theatre is a modest-sized structure located between the former eastern gate and the L-shaped Temple. Architectural elements include seating areas and stage remains, though the structure is partially preserved.
Roman Baths
The large Roman bath complex is situated on the northern part of the site near the entrance. Extending over 80 meters, it includes a caldarium (hot bath), tepidarium (warm bath), and water reservoirs. Remains of cornices and columns from the Roman era are scattered within the complex, indicating its scale and function.
Nymphaeum (Roman Fountain)
Located northeast of the site, the nymphaeum dates to the late 2nd or early 3rd century CE. It features fine sculptural decoration and water installations. The fountain was part of a sophisticated Roman urban sector that included colonnaded streets and monumental buildings.
Colonnaded Street (Roman)
The main colonnaded street crosses the city for over 720 meters, representing a structured urban expansion of Roman Byblos to the northeast of the acropolis. Excavations have identified three distinct sections along the street, which connected residential buildings, shops, and public monuments, forming a major civic artery.
Early Bronze Age Houses
Rectangular houses from the Early Bronze Age, often T-shaped, have been excavated. These dwellings typically contained two to three rooms facing a courtyard. Early phases featured plastered floors, while later phases had unplastered floors. Houses functioned as independent economic units with storage and production areas. Upper floors or half-roofs were supported by wooden columns and decks. Storage rooms were often accessed via upper floors through narrow corridors or ladders. Courtyards were half-paved and used for activities such as food processing, weaving, and metalworking.
Eneolithic Necropolis (Chalcolithic Burial Jars)
The Chalcolithic necropolis contains over 2,000 burial jars dated between 4500 and 3700 BCE, with 3,652 grave goods. Burials were located inside or near dwellings. The jars are decorated with incisions, horizontal bands, and relief motifs. Grave goods include ceramics, metals (mostly copper), stone objects, flint tools, ivory, beads, and amulets. Glyptic seals and animal figures appear on jar handles. Gold artifacts are rare.
Maritime Installation and Harbor
Below the archaeological site, maritime installations extend from the medieval port northward to a sandy beach south. Evidence includes nails used in shipbuilding and lifting apparatus. Numerous stone anchors have been found underwater and on land, some bearing Egyptian hieroglyphs. Anchors indicate ship origins from Egypt, Ugarit, Crete, and Cyprus. Historically, the site had two ports, one to the north and one to the south. Early harbor modifications date back to the Middle Bronze Age. Some harbor structures are now submerged due to sea level rise.
Other Remains
Additional remains include a small Roman temple on the southeast part of the site near the Persian fortress. Possible residential buildings, shops, and colonnaded streets have been identified in the Roman lower city. Remains of a Roman quarry and necropolis lie east of the acropolis. Surface traces of Neolithic and Chalcolithic buildings with plastered floors and naviforme technology have been documented. Low walls and floor layers indicate domestic and economic activities. Possible cisterns and water distribution systems, including aqueducts and reservoirs from Roman times, are also present.
Preservation and Current Status
The preservation of Byblos’s ruins varies by structure and period. The Temple of Baalat Gebal and associated complexes retain substantial masonry, though some areas are fragmentary. City walls survive in sections, with visible restorations from the Mamluk period. Roman structures such as the theatre, baths, and colonnaded street remain partially preserved, with scattered architectural elements including columns and cornices. The Royal Necropolis tombs are largely subterranean but accessible through excavation.
Restoration efforts have stabilized many structures, employing modern materials sparingly to maintain authenticity. Environmental threats such as erosion and vegetation growth are managed alongside human impacts through protective measures. Archaeological research and conservation continue under Lebanese and French supervision, with UNESCO involvement in safeguarding the site during recent regional conflicts.
Unexcavated Areas
Several sectors within the ancient city remain unexcavated or only partially explored. Surface surveys and geophysical studies suggest buried remains beneath modern urban development, particularly in the lower city and harbor zones. Some districts near the acropolis and eastern quarters await further excavation, though modern construction limits access. Future archaeological investigations are planned but constrained by conservation policies and urban encroachment.
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