Aizanoi: An Ancient City in Western Turkey with Rich Historical Legacy
Table of Contents
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Country: Turkey
Civilization: Byzantine, Roman
Remains: City
Context
Aizanoi is located near the modern town of Çavdarhisar in Kütahya Province, western Turkey, positioned on a low limestone plateau overlooking the Penkalas stream. The site lies within the inner western Anatolian highlands, north of the Gediz plain, an area characterized by a combination of fertile agricultural plains and a network of local watercourses. This setting provided natural resources conducive to sustained settlement and agricultural production.
Archaeological investigations have revealed continuous occupation layers beginning in the Early Bronze Age, with significant cultural development during the Iron Age under Phrygian influence. The site’s strategic location facilitated its growth through the Hellenistic and Roman periods, when it became a prominent urban center. Epigraphic and material evidence attest to continued habitation into the Byzantine era, with gradual decline and eventual abandonment during the medieval period. The site’s extensive ruins and inscriptions offer valuable insights into Anatolian urbanism and religious practices across millennia.
Systematic archaeological research commenced in the twentieth century, led primarily by Turkish institutions. Excavations, surveys, and conservation efforts have documented the city’s architectural remains and material culture, enabling detailed historical reconstruction. Portions of Aizanoi are preserved and accessible under heritage management, supporting ongoing scholarly study and public education.
History
Bronze Age and Iron Age Origins
Archaeological excavations at Aizanoi have uncovered settlement layers dating to the Early Bronze Age, approximately the third millennium BCE, demonstrating the site’s long-term habitation. Ceramic assemblages from this period confirm the presence of a local community well before the city’s classical development. During the Iron Age, the region was dominated by Phrygian culture, and Aizanoi was inhabited by Phrygian peoples who established a cultural and possibly political presence in the area. Although detailed historical records from this early phase are scarce, the continuity of occupation laid the foundation for the city’s later urbanization.
Hellenistic Period
Following the disintegration of Alexander the Great’s empire, Aizanoi became subject to the shifting control of Hellenistic successor states. The city alternated between the Kingdom of Pergamum and the Kingdom of Bithynia, reflecting the contested nature of western Anatolia during this era. In 133 BCE, the Kingdom of Pergamum bequeathed its territories, including Aizanoi, to the Roman Republic, marking the city’s incorporation into the Roman sphere. Despite this political transition, Aizanoi retained a degree of local autonomy, as evidenced by its continued minting of coins bearing civic symbols and magistrates’ names. This numismatic activity indicates sustained economic vitality and municipal organization during the Hellenistic period.
Roman Period
Under Roman administration, Aizanoi was integrated into the province of Phrygia Pacatiana and evolved into a significant urban center. Situated at approximately 1,000 meters elevation on both banks of the Penkalas River, the city experienced substantial growth from the early Imperial period through the third century CE. Monumental architecture from this era includes the Temple of Zeus, constructed under Emperor Domitian (81–96 CE) with subsequent imperial patronage from Hadrian. The temple is distinguished by a vaulted chamber beneath the cella, an architectural rarity in Anatolia, which likely functioned as a treasury and is associated with the local cult of the mother goddess Kybele.
Aizanoi also featured a unique combined theatre-stadium complex, built between the late second and mid-third centuries CE, notable for the adjacency of two distinct entertainment venues separated only by the theatre’s stage building. The city’s circular macellum, dating to the late second century CE, bears inscriptions of the Price Edict of Diocletian (301 CE), making Aizanoi the earliest known site where imperial price controls were publicly displayed and enforced. Two Roman bath complexes, one near the theatre-stadium and another in the northeastern sector, reflect the city’s urban amenities. The population during this period is estimated at approximately 30,000 inhabitants. Four Roman bridges spanned the Penkalas River, two of which remain in use today following modern restoration efforts.
Early Christian and Late Antique Period
By the fourth century CE, Aizanoi had become an early Christian bishopric, with its bishops participating in major ecumenical councils, including the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE. Initially a suffragan see under Laodicea, the bishopric later came under the jurisdiction of Hierapolis following administrative reorganization. The city experienced demographic and economic decline after the seventh century, though occupation persisted into the Byzantine period.
During Late Antiquity, the southern precinct of the Temple of Zeus was modified to include a large odeon, which was largely destroyed in the Byzantine era. Around 400 CE, a colonnaded street was constructed northeast of the macellum, utilizing spolia from earlier structures. This street extended approximately 450 meters and led to the sanctuary of Meter Steunene, an Anatolian Earth Mother goddess. The sanctuary, located within a now-collapsed cave tunnel near the city, yielded clay cult figurines and two circular pits interpreted as spaces for animal sacrifice. The later Roman baths were repurposed as the bishop’s seat, illustrating adaptive reuse of urban infrastructure during this period.
Seljuk Period and Medieval Transformation
Following the decline of Byzantine control, the site underwent significant transformation during the Seljuk period. The hilltop of the Temple of Zeus was converted into a fortified citadel by the Çavdar Tatars, a Turkic group whose name is preserved in the modern town of Çavdarhisar. This military adaptation reflects the changing political and social landscape of Anatolia in the medieval era. The ancient ruins attracted the attention of European travelers by the early nineteenth century, initiating modern scholarly interest in the site.
Modern Rediscovery and Archaeological Research
Systematic archaeological investigations at Aizanoi began in 1926 under the auspices of the German Archaeological Institute and resumed in 1970. Since then, Turkish archaeological teams, particularly from Pamukkale University, have conducted extensive excavations, surveys, and conservation projects. These efforts have uncovered a large necropolis with burials primarily dating to the first century CE, containing grave goods such as coins, lamps, mirrors, and jewelry. Recent discoveries include a hoard of over 600 Roman coins dating to approximately 2,100 years ago and statues of deities such as Hygieia and Heracles. These findings have significantly enhanced understanding of the city’s historical trajectory and cultural significance.
Daily Life and Importance by Period
Hellenistic Period
During the Hellenistic era, Aizanoi’s population likely consisted of indigenous Anatolian inhabitants alongside Hellenized elites. Civic life was organized around local magistracies and councils, maintaining a degree of municipal autonomy under the suzerainty of regional kingdoms. The city’s economy was predominantly agricultural, focusing on the production of grain, wine, and wool, supplemented by artisanal crafts and local trade. Markets presumably operated in central urban areas, facilitating exchange of both local and imported goods. Religious practices combined traditional Anatolian deities with Hellenistic gods, reflecting cultural syncretism. Transport relied on overland routes connecting Aizanoi to regional centers such as Pergamum, with pack animals and carts moving goods across the Gediz plain.
Roman Period
Under Roman rule, Aizanoi developed into a municipium with an estimated population of around 30,000. The social structure included Roman settlers, local Anatolians, freedmen, elite landowners, civic magistrates, artisans, merchants, and slaves. Inscriptions attest to benefactors like Marcus Apuleius Eurykles, who sponsored public buildings. The economy expanded, anchored in agriculture producing grain, wine, and wool, alongside workshops and markets supporting crafts and commerce. The macellum functioned as a regulated food market, with the Price Edict of Diocletian inscribed on its walls, indicating sophisticated economic administration. Domestic life featured homes with mosaic floors and painted walls. Funerary customs included both inhumation and cremation, with grave goods such as jewelry, mirrors, and lamps reflecting social status. Public amenities comprised two bath complexes with exercise areas, a unique combined theatre-stadium complex for entertainment, and colonnaded streets facilitating urban movement. Religious life centered on the imperial cult and local worship of Zeus and Kybele, with the temple’s vaulted treasury chamber symbolizing the integration of Anatolian mother goddess traditions within Roman religious architecture. Civic governance was conducted by local councils and magistrates within the provincial system.
Early Christian and Late Antique Period
By the fourth century CE, Aizanoi had become an early Christian bishopric, with bishops participating in major councils such as Nicaea. The population remained urban but declined after the seventh century. Ecclesiastical authorities coexisted with traditional civic elites. Economic activities adapted to changing conditions, with public buildings like the later Roman baths repurposed as the bishop’s seat. The colonnaded street constructed circa 400 CE connected the city to the sanctuary of Meter Steunene, demonstrating continuity of Anatolian earth mother cults alongside Christian worship. Clay figurines and sacrificial pits attest to ongoing ritual practices. Domestic life likely reflected reduced prosperity, with fewer monumental constructions but continued habitation. Religious practices blended Christian liturgy with residual pagan traditions. Transport and markets contracted, focusing on local needs. The city’s role evolved from a Roman municipium to a regional ecclesiastical center amid Late Antique transformations.
Seljuk Period and Medieval Transformation
During the Seljuk era, the urban fabric of Aizanoi was militarized, with the Temple of Zeus hill converted into a citadel by the Çavdar Tatars. This change marked a shift from civic and religious functions to strategic military use. The population likely comprised military personnel and local inhabitants adapting to new political realities. Economic life centered on subsistence agriculture and local trade, with diminished urban amenities. Religious practices shifted predominantly to Islam, replacing earlier Christian and pagan cults. The site’s importance declined from a municipium to a fortified settlement within the Seljuk frontier. Social organization emphasized military governance and tribal affiliations, contrasting with previous civic institutions.
Modern Rediscovery and Archaeological Research
Modern archaeological investigations have revealed detailed aspects of Aizanoi’s daily life across periods. Excavations of necropolises have illuminated funerary customs, while domestic artifacts provide evidence of diet and household decoration. Monumental structures attest to civic and religious functions. Finds such as coin hoards and statues illuminate economic networks and cultural practices. Research has clarified the city’s evolution from a Hellenistic agricultural center to a flourishing Roman municipium and Christian bishopric, followed by military transformation under the Seljuks. These studies contribute to broader understanding of Anatolian urbanism and cultural continuity.
Remains
Architectural Features
Aizanoi’s remains are situated on a limestone plateau above the Penkalas stream, with the urban area extending on both sides of the river. The city’s layout includes religious, civic, and economic structures primarily constructed from local stone and marble. Architectural evidence documents phases of development from the late Hellenistic period through the fourth century CE, with later modifications during Byzantine and Seljuk occupations. Roman construction techniques such as ashlar masonry and vaulted chambers are evident. Monumental public buildings cluster near the river and temple hill. Several structures were adapted in later periods, reflecting evolving urban functions. Preservation ranges from well-maintained temples and entertainment complexes to fragmentary baths and necropolises.
Key Buildings and Structures
Temple of Zeus
The Temple of Zeus, erected in the late first century CE under Emperor Domitian (circa 92–95 CE), occupies a commanding hilltop overlooking Aizanoi. The temple is pseudodipteral, measuring approximately 35 by 53 meters, with eight columns on each short side and fifteen along the long sides. A vaulted chamber beneath the cella, likely serving as a treasury, is architecturally unique in Anatolia. The temple’s decoration includes acroteria featuring busts of Kybele on the west pediment and Zeus on the east, indicating dual dedication. Construction continued with imperial support from Hadrian and benefactions by Marcus Apuleius Eurykles. The temple sustained damage during the 1970 Gediz earthquake but has since undergone restoration. During the Seljuk period, the Çavdar Tatars carved equestrian and battle scenes into the temple walls, adding a later layer of modification.
Theatre and Stadium Complex
North of the Temple of Zeus lies a unique combined theatre-stadium complex, constructed between the late second and mid-third centuries CE. The theatre and stadium are built adjacent to each other, separated only by the theatre’s stage building, an arrangement without known parallels in the ancient world. Inscriptions attribute part of the construction to Marcus Apuleius Eurykles. The theatre features a semicircular seating area typical of Roman theatres, though exact capacity is undocumented. A bathhouse with marble cladding and water-heating channels is situated along the road connecting the temple to the theatre-stadium complex. This bathhouse includes a palaestra (exercise area) and marble furnishings, dating to the same period.
Macellum (Market Building)
The macellum is a circular market building dating to the second half of the second century CE, located in the southern part of the city. Its walls bear inscriptions in Latin and Greek detailing prices of various goods, including a notable comparison equating the cost of male slaves to animals. In the fourth century CE, the building was inscribed with a copy of the Price Edict of Diocletian (301 CE), an imperial decree aimed at controlling inflation. The macellum was uncovered following the destruction of a mosque during the 1970 Gediz earthquake.
Colonnaded Street
Constructed around 400 CE, the colonnaded street extends approximately 450 meters northeast of the macellum. It is lined with columns, many reused from earlier buildings, and likely terminated at the sanctuary of Meter Steunene. The street’s construction involved demolition of a Claudian-period Temple of Artemis (41–54 CE). This colonnade reflects late antique urban development and reuse of architectural elements.
Sanctuary of Meter Steunene
The sanctuary dedicated to the Anatolian Earth Mother goddess Meter Steunene is located within a deep tunnel inside a now-collapsed cave near the city. Excavations revealed clay cult figurines and two circular pits interpreted as spaces for animal sacrifice. The cave setting and ritual deposits confirm its religious function, though the structure itself no longer survives.
Baths
Two distinct Roman bath complexes have been identified. The first, dating to the late second century CE, lies between the theatre-stadium complex and the Temple of Zeus. It includes a palaestra and marble furnishings, with evidence of a hypocaust heating system. The second bath complex, constructed in the third century CE in the city’s northeast, features mosaic floors depicting a satyr and a maenad. This later bath was rebuilt several centuries afterward to serve as the bishop’s seat during the Byzantine period, indicating adaptive reuse.
Necropolis
The necropolis is situated north of the city on the Penkalas river’s north bank. It contains simple earth graves and cremation burials primarily dating to the first century CE. Tombs are often covered or surrounded by rubble stones or terracotta slab covers. Grave goods include bronze coins, glass unguentaria (small vessels for oils), bronze mirrors, bone hairpins, terracotta lamps, and iron nails, which suggest burials in wooden beds or coffins. Some graves contained gold jewelry such as rings and earrings, with typologies dating to the first century CE. Phrygian door-shaped tombstones with inscriptions and symbolic decorations—bulls, lions, and eagles for men; baskets of wool and mirrors for women—are present. Specific graves, including Grave 2 and Grave 6, contained cremation burials with associated artifacts like Claudian-period bronze coins and iron nails. The necropolis provides demographic data consistent with a Roman-period population of approximately 30,000 inhabitants.
Roman Bridges
Four Roman bridges cross the Penkalas river near Aizanoi. Two of these bridges remain in use today after restoration by the Turkish Highways Authority. The bridges are located close to the city, with one necropolis area situated about two kilometers southwest of the urban center. Constructed of stone, the bridges exemplify Roman engineering techniques adapted to local topography.
Other Remains
Additional remains include surface traces and architectural fragments of various structures, some of which have not been fully excavated. The city walls and gates are known from surface evidence but lack comprehensive study. The sanctuary tunnel of Meter Steunene is collapsed and inaccessible. An odeon, constructed in the southern part of the Temple of Zeus precinct around the fourth century CE, was mostly destroyed during the Byzantine period. Archaeological surveys have recorded these features, though excavation remains incomplete in several areas.
Archaeological Discoveries
Excavations at Aizanoi have yielded artifacts spanning from the Early Bronze Age through the medieval period. Pottery assemblages include local Phrygian ceramics and Roman tableware. Numerous inscriptions in Latin and Greek have been documented, including dedicatory texts on public buildings and the Price Edict of Diocletian on the macellum walls. Coin finds range from Roman Republican denarii to imperial issues, including a hoard of 651 coins dating to approximately 2,100 years ago, featuring images of Caesar, Brutus, Mark Antony, and Augustus.
Domestic objects such as bronze mirrors, bone hairpins, terracotta lamps, and glass unguentaria have been recovered primarily from burial contexts. Religious artifacts include clay cult figurines from the sanctuary of Meter Steunene and statues of deities like Hygieia and Heracles discovered within the agora and other city areas. These finds contribute to understanding the city’s economic activity, religious practices, and daily life across its occupation phases.
Preservation and Current Status
The Temple of Zeus, though damaged in the 1970 Gediz earthquake, has undergone restoration to stabilize and conserve its structure. The theatre-stadium complex remains partially preserved, with the theatre’s seating and stage building identifiable. The macellum’s circular walls survive, bearing inscriptions. The colonnaded street’s columns remain standing in parts, while the sanctuary of Meter Steunene exists only as a collapsed cave tunnel. The two bath complexes survive in varying conditions; the northeastern baths were rebuilt for ecclesiastical use in the Byzantine period.
The necropolis tombs are largely fragmentary but retain grave markers and associated artifacts. Two Roman bridges have been restored and remain functional. Ongoing excavations and conservation efforts are conducted by Turkish archaeological teams, particularly from Pamukkale University. Some structures, such as the odeon in the Temple of Zeus precinct, are stabilized but not fully restored. The site is managed under heritage protection, with parts accessible for research.
Unexcavated Areas
Several areas within Aizanoi remain unexcavated or only partially explored. Surface surveys have identified architectural fragments and possible buried structures, but detailed excavation has not been undertaken. The city walls and gates are known from surface traces but lack comprehensive study. The sanctuary tunnel of Meter Steunene is collapsed and inaccessible. Future excavation plans have not been explicitly detailed in published sources, though ongoing research continues in selected sectors such as the northern necropolis and river wall foundations.
