Salamis: An Ancient Coastal City in Cyprus
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Country: Cyprus
Civilization: Byzantine, Greek, Roman
Remains: City
Context
Salamis is situated near the contemporary village of Yeni Boğaziçi on the eastern coastline of Cyprus, within the administrative boundaries of the Famagusta District. The site occupies a coastal plain adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, providing direct access to maritime routes that historically connected Cyprus with the broader eastern Mediterranean world. The flat topography and proximity to natural harbors facilitated its development as a settlement engaged in regional trade and communication networks.
Archaeological evidence indicates that Salamis was first occupied during the Late Bronze Age, with material culture reflecting Mycenaean influences. Over subsequent centuries, the city evolved through the Archaic and Classical Greek periods before incorporation into the Roman Empire in the 1st century BCE. It remained inhabited through the Byzantine era until the early medieval period. Historical and archaeological data document a series of destructive earthquakes in the 4th and 7th centuries CE, which severely damaged the urban fabric and contributed to the city’s eventual abandonment.
Systematic excavations at Salamis commenced in the late 19th century and have continued intermittently, uncovering extensive urban remains including public edifices and infrastructure. The site is partially preserved, with ongoing conservation initiatives led by Cypriot authorities and international archaeological teams aimed at safeguarding its material heritage. Modern development in the vicinity presents challenges to preservation, but controlled archaeological interventions have enabled detailed documentation of the site’s stratigraphy and historical phases.
History
Salamis’s historical trajectory reflects its strategic position on Cyprus’s eastern seaboard, where it functioned as a significant urban center from the Late Bronze Age through the Byzantine period. The city’s development was closely linked to maritime commerce, political shifts in the eastern Mediterranean, and imperial administrations. Its prominence fluctuated in response to external conquests, natural disasters, and economic transformations, culminating in its abandonment following the Arab conquests of the 7th century CE.
Late Bronze Age and Archaic Period (c. 11th–6th century BCE)
Archaeological data establish Salamis’s foundation in the 11th century BCE, emerging after the destruction of the nearby Late Bronze Age city of Enkomi, likely caused by seismic activity around 1075 BCE. The settlement developed around a natural harbor that facilitated the export of copper, a key resource in the eastern Mediterranean trade networks. During the Archaic period, Salamis became one of the principal Cypriot kingdoms, as evidenced by richly furnished royal tombs discovered between Salamis and Enkomi, which attest to pronounced social stratification and wealth accumulation.
Assyrian inscriptions from the reign of King Esarhaddon (680–669 BCE) record tribute payments from Cypriot rulers, including “Kisu, king of Sillu’ua,” identified with Salamis, confirming its integration into the Assyrian imperial system. By the 5th century BCE, the city exercised economic autonomy, as demonstrated by its own coinage, which facilitated participation in regional commerce. Greek cultural influence was prominent, with local traditions attributing the city’s foundation to the hero Teucer, son of the Salaminian king of mainland Greece, a narrative likely reflecting Mycenaean colonization memories rather than historical fact.
Classical Period (6th–4th century BCE)
Throughout the Classical era, Salamis experienced successive overlordship by major regional powers, including Assyrian, Egyptian, and ultimately Persian empires. Under Persian dominion from the late 6th century BCE until Alexander the Great’s conquest circa 330 BCE, Salamis functioned as a Cypriot kingdom within the imperial administrative framework. The city’s strategic port facilitated trade and political alliances across the eastern Mediterranean.
Political unrest is documented during this period, notably the revolt led by Onesilus, a member of the Salaminian royal family, against Persian rule. Herodotus records this uprising, which, despite its initial impact, did not result in lasting independence for the city. Salamis maintained its status as a regional power, balancing local governance with imperial obligations.
Hellenistic Period (4th–1st century BCE)
Following Alexander the Great’s death in 323 BCE, Salamis became a contested site among his successors, particularly during the naval Battle of Salamis in 306 BCE, where Ptolemy I and Demetrius clashed for control of Cyprus. The city ultimately came under the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, serving as an administrative and economic center within this Hellenistic realm.
Ptolemaic governance included officials such as the strategos, a military governor, and the antistrategos, who oversaw copper mining operations, underscoring Salamis’s continued economic importance. The city prospered as a hub of commerce and administration, maintaining Greek cultural traditions while integrating Ptolemaic political structures.
Roman Period (1st century BCE–4th century CE)
In 58 BCE, the Roman Republic annexed Cyprus, incorporating Salamis into its provincial system under the administration of Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis. During the Roman Imperial period, Salamis flourished as Cyprus’s principal trade center, particularly in the export of wood and copper. The city was a religious focal point, with Zeus as the principal deity, alongside other cults evidenced by inscriptions and architectural remains.
In 117 CE, Salamis sustained significant damage during the Jewish-Roman conflicts but was subsequently rebuilt. The Roman era saw the construction of monumental public buildings, including a gymnasium with a palaestra, a theater, stadium, amphitheater, forum, and a temple dedicated to Zeus. Population estimates range from 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, necessitating sophisticated water management systems such as aqueducts, large reservoirs, and bath complexes. The city maintained a vibrant civic life, issuing its own coinage and supporting markets and entertainment venues.
Late Roman and Early Byzantine Period (4th–7th century CE)
The 4th century CE brought considerable challenges to Salamis. Earthquakes in 332 and 342 CE caused widespread destruction, prompting extensive reconstruction under Emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361 CE), who renamed the city Constantia and designated it the capital of Cyprus. Over subsequent decades, the harbor gradually silted up, diminishing the city’s commercial significance.
Christianity gained prominence during this period, with Bishop Epiphanius, a notable Christian writer, active in the city. Christian basilicas, such as the Kampanopetra basilica, were constructed, reflecting the religious transformation. Water supply infrastructure was enhanced by a large aqueduct system sourcing water from the springs of Kythrea, including a vaulted reservoir (loutron) with a capacity of approximately 4,000 cubic meters and a double cistern adorned with 6th-century Byzantine frescoes. The palaestra and bath complex incorporated advanced hydraulic engineering, featuring a semi-circular latrine with a flushing system and a mini-siphon water channel. Inscriptions indicate the aqueduct’s original construction during the Neronian period (mid-1st century CE), with later Byzantine restorations possibly under Emperor Justinian. Salamis is depicted on the Tabula Peutingeriana, a Roman road map from the 4th or early 5th century CE, confirming its continued regional importance.
Arab Conquest and Abandonment (mid-7th century CE)
Circa 650 CE, Salamis, then known as Constantia, was destroyed during the Arab conquests of Cyprus. The city’s inhabitants relocated to the nearby settlement of Arsinoe, a former Ptolemaic foundation that had declined to a fishing village but was renamed Ammochostos (modern Famagusta), meaning “hidden in the sands.” Following this abandonment, many of Salamis’s buildings were gradually buried by sand, marking the cessation of its occupation. This transition reflects broader political and demographic shifts in the eastern Mediterranean under early Islamic expansion.
Daily Life and Importance by Period
Classical Period (6th–4th century BCE)
During the Classical period, Salamis was a prominent Cypriot kingdom with a population predominantly of Greek cultural heritage, reflecting Mycenaean and local Cypriot traditions. Archaeological evidence from richly furnished royal tombs indicates a socially stratified society comprising an elite ruling class, artisans, merchants, and laborers. Gender roles likely conformed to Greek norms, with men engaged in public and commercial activities and women managing domestic affairs.
Economic life centered on maritime trade, particularly in copper, facilitated by the city’s natural harbor. Production activities included metalworking and pottery at both household and workshop levels. The city minted its own coins by the 5th century BCE, underscoring economic autonomy. Dietary staples included cereals, olives, fish, and wine, consistent with Mediterranean patterns. Clothing likely consisted of tunics and cloaks akin to mainland Greek styles. Domestic interiors, while not extensively preserved, probably featured painted walls and simple furnishings. Markets and local trade hubs served the population, with transport relying on maritime vessels and overland routes connecting Salamis to regional centers. Religious life focused on Greek deities, especially Zeus, and civic organization included a monarchy, as attested by Assyrian tribute records.
Hellenistic Period (4th–1st century BCE)
Under Ptolemaic rule, Salamis retained its Greek cultural identity while adapting to new administrative frameworks. The population comprised Greek settlers and indigenous Cypriots, with a governing elite including military and civil officials such as the strategos and antistrategos, responsible for military command and supervision of copper mining. Social hierarchy remained pronounced, with elites controlling key economic sectors.
Economic activities expanded, with copper mining and export continuing as principal industries. Workshops and administrative centers operated at an organized scale, supporting both local needs and imperial demands. Diet and clothing remained consistent with earlier periods, with possible increased access to imported luxury goods due to enhanced trade networks. Urban residences likely featured mosaic floors and painted decorations reflecting Hellenistic artistic trends. Markets and ports facilitated the exchange of goods, including imported ceramics and textiles. Maritime transport dominated, supplemented by land routes connecting Salamis to other Cypriot cities. Religious practices continued to honor Greek gods, with possible syncretic influences from Egyptian rule. Salamis functioned as an important administrative and economic hub within the Ptolemaic kingdom.
Roman Period (1st century BCE–4th century CE)
During Roman administration, Salamis developed into Cyprus’s principal urban center, hosting a diverse population including Roman settlers, local Greeks, and other eastern Mediterranean groups. Social stratification encompassed wealthy landowners, merchants, artisans, slaves, and a growing civic elite. Epigraphic evidence references magistrates and local officials managing city affairs.
Economic life thrived on maritime trade, particularly in copper and timber exports. Industrial-scale production included mining and shipbuilding, supported by workshops and port facilities. The diet incorporated bread, olives, fish, and wine, supplemented by imported goods from across the empire. Clothing styles blended Roman and local fashions, with tunics, cloaks, and sandals common. Residential architecture featured mosaic floors, painted walls, and courtyards with water installations. Public buildings such as the gymnasium, theater, and baths served educational, social, and recreational functions. Markets (fora) provided venues for commerce, while transport relied on ships and Roman roads. Religious life was diverse, centering on Zeus and other pagan cults, with temples and shrines prominent. Salamis functioned as a municipium with self-governance under Roman provincial administration, playing a key role in regional trade and culture.
Late Roman and Early Byzantine Period (4th–7th century CE)
Following the destructive earthquakes of the 4th century, Salamis was rebuilt and renamed Constantia, becoming the capital of Cyprus under Emperor Constantius II. The population included Christian clergy, imperial officials, and local inhabitants, with ecclesiastical leadership exemplified by Bishop Epiphanius. Social roles adapted to Christian norms, with increased prominence of church authorities alongside civic officials.
Economic activity declined due to harbor silting but persisted through agriculture, local crafts, and limited trade. Water management was highly developed, featuring an extensive aqueduct system, vaulted reservoirs, and sophisticated bath complexes with flushing latrines, reflecting public health priorities. Diet remained Mediterranean, with increased Christian dietary influences. Domestic and public spaces were adorned with mosaics and frescoes, including 6th-century Byzantine paintings in cisterns. Christian basilicas replaced pagan temples, and religious life centered on liturgical worship and community gatherings. Educational activities likely included Christian catechesis and scriptural instruction. Transport shifted toward overland routes as maritime access diminished. Constantia served as an administrative and ecclesiastical capital, integrating imperial authority with emerging Byzantine Christian culture.
Arab Conquest and Abandonment (mid-7th century CE)
The Arab conquest of Cyprus in the mid-7th century CE resulted in the destruction and abandonment of Salamis/Constantia. The population relocated to the nearby settlement of Arsinoe, renamed Ammochostos (modern Famagusta), reflecting a strategic shift toward more defensible and economically viable locations. Daily life at Salamis ceased, and its buildings were gradually buried by sand.
Remains
Architectural Features
The archaeological remains at Salamis encompass a broad chronological range from the Late Bronze Age through the Byzantine period, illustrating the city’s evolving urban fabric. The site’s layout is characterized by civic and religious structures, fortifications, and extensive hydraulic infrastructure. Construction techniques include ashlar masonry using sandstone blocks, vaulted roofing supported by stone pillars, and advanced water management systems such as aqueducts and large reservoirs. The Roman period witnessed significant urban expansion, with monumental architecture concentrated near the agora and harbor. Following natural disasters and harbor silting, the urban area contracted, leading to partial abandonment in the early medieval era. Present-day remains include foundations, partial walls, and reconstructed sections of major buildings, while many features survive only as archaeological traces.
Key Buildings and Structures
Theatre
Located south of the baths complex, the theatre was constructed likely during the Augustan period (late 1st century BCE to early 1st century CE). Originally, it featured approximately 50 tiers of seating arranged in a semicircular cavea, accommodating an estimated 15,000 spectators. Presently, only 19 tiers remain, some of which have been partially reconstructed. The structure is built of local stone and exhibits typical Roman architectural elements, including the seating area facing the stage building. Surviving remains include seating tiers and fragments of the stage, though much of the superstructure is lost.
Palaestra and Baths Complex
Situated in the northeastern sector of Salamis, the palaestra and baths complex dates primarily to the Roman period, with continued use into the Byzantine era. The palaestra functioned as an exercise and wrestling area adjacent to the bath facilities. The baths include a semi-circular latrine with 44 seats located at the southwest corner behind a fountain. This latrine features a water inlet channel that flushed waste through a small channel in front of users, demonstrating advanced sanitation engineering. On the east side, a small elevated water channel approximately 0.5 meters above ground was interrupted by a foot passage; this was resolved by two small basins and subterranean pipes forming a mini-siphon system to maintain water flow.
South of the baths lie two large reservoirs: the larger measures approximately 26 meters in length by 4.3 meters in width and up to 5 meters in depth, with a volume near 550 cubic meters. Its stepped south wall was formerly part of the stadium. This reservoir likely served as the main water storage for the bath complex, though its precise connection to the baths and water supply remains unclear. The smaller reservoir measures about 10 meters long by 4.9 meters wide and at least 2 meters high, with a capacity exceeding 100 cubic meters; its function is uncertain but it is too large to have served as a settling basin.
Stadium and Amphitheater
Between the palaestra/baths complex and the theatre are the remains of a stadium and an amphitheater. These survive primarily as visible foundations and earthworks, with no detailed measurements or seating capacity data available. Their layout suggests typical Roman designs for athletic and entertainment purposes, but preservation is limited.
Fish Market and Roman Baths
Foundations of a fish market and a separate structure identified as Roman baths are present near the main urban area. These remain at the foundation level only, with no detailed architectural features preserved. Their dating is uncertain but likely corresponds to the Roman period.
Colonnaded Street
A colonnaded street marked by a row of stone columns crosses the modern main road at Salamis. At the intersection, a set of three water basins was constructed, though their detailed form and function remain undocumented. The street likely served as a major thoroughfare within the city’s urban grid.
Granite Forum and Roman Agora
The granite forum and Roman agora form the civic center of Salamis. The Roman agora lies adjacent to the Temple of Zeus and a large vaulted water reservoir known as the loutron or vouta. The forum area includes paved open spaces and remains of surrounding porticoes, primarily constructed in the 1st century CE. The granite used in the forum’s construction is notable for its durability and finish.
Temple of Zeus
Located on the south side of the Roman agora, the Temple of Zeus dates to the early Roman period (1st century CE). The temple’s architecture is closely associated with the adjacent large water reservoir. Foundations and some wall fragments survive, constructed of sandstone blocks. The temple’s plan and decorative elements are only partially preserved, but inscriptions and architectural context confirm its dedication to Zeus.
Large Water Reservoir (Loutron or Vouta)
This large rectangular water reservoir adjoins the Roman agora and was likely constructed in the 6th century CE during the Byzantine period. It features a vaulted roof supported by 36 square sandstone pillars measuring approximately 1.1 by 1.1 meters. The reservoir’s walls are 2.0 to 2.5 meters thick, built of sandstone blocks mortared together, though no watertight lining survives. Internal dimensions are approximately 52.5 meters long, 15.3 meters wide, and 5 meters deep, with a capacity near 4,000 cubic meters. The reservoir is partly subterranean and partly above ground. Three large apertures near the east wall served as water inlets, while a hole near the bottom of the south wall and stairs in the north wall facilitated cleaning. The reservoir was supplied by the aqueduct from Kythrea, with a branch pipeline running within or atop the city wall of Constantia/Salamis to fill it.
Aqueduct from Kythrea
The aqueduct, approximately 40 kilometers in length, transported water from the springs of Kythrea (ancient Chytroi) to Salamis. Inscriptions date its construction to the mid-1st century CE, likely during the reign of Emperor Nero. Remains include a few pillars and two arches near Yeni Boğaziçi / Ayia Gregorius and north of the St. Barnabas cloister. The aqueduct bifurcated near the Ismele/Tricomo road junction, with a southern branch supplying the large reservoir north of the Roman forum and a northern branch following or atop the ancient city wall toward the palaestra and baths complex. A later Byzantine aqueduct with pointed arches, some restored during the Lusignan period, also existed, possibly built or restored under Emperor Justinian in the 6th century CE. The aqueduct was essential for supplying water to the city’s bathhouses, which could not rely solely on local springs or wells.
Double Cistern
Excavated in 1933 by Dr. Joan du Plat Taylor, the double cistern is a Roman-Byzantine structure comprising two large circular chambers, each approximately 4.8 meters high, connected by two corridors over 1.2 meters long. One chamber contains a 2.4-meter-high shaft, the other a 7.2-meter-high shaft. The chambers taper slightly toward the vaulted roof and are nearly oval in shape. Walls are constructed of roughly cut stone with a 3-inch-thick gypsum cement lining. Bands of cement mark water levels, and traces of scaffolding holes and plastered-over openings are visible. Originally built as rainwater cisterns in the 1st century CE, they were later reopened and possibly connected to the aqueduct in the late 5th or early 6th century CE. Fading 6th-century paintings and inscriptions, including red crosses, suggest possible use as a baptistery. The cistern is not open to the public.
City Walls of Constantia/Salamis
The city walls run parallel and a few meters south of the large water reservoir. Constructed primarily during the Byzantine period, the walls exhibit masonry techniques consistent with defensive structures of the 4th to 6th centuries CE. The aqueduct or a branch pipeline likely ran within or atop these walls to supply water to the reservoir. Portions of the walls survive as standing masonry and foundation remains.
Other Water Works near Baths Complex
South of the baths complex lie the two large reservoirs described above. Additionally, a small elevated water channel on the east side of the palaestra and baths complex incorporates a mini-siphon system to maintain water flow across a foot passage. At the crossing of the Colonnaded street and the modern main road, a set of three water basins was constructed, though their detailed form and function remain undocumented.
Other Remains
Foundations of a fish market and Roman baths survive near the main urban area, though only at the foundation level. The stadium and amphitheater remain as visible earthworks and foundation traces between the palaestra/baths and theatre. The Colonnaded street, marked by stone columns, crosses the modern road and includes water basins at the intersection. Remnants of the aqueduct’s pillars and arches are visible near Yeni Boğaziçi / Ayia Gregorius and north of the St. Barnabas cloister. Collectively, these remains illustrate the city’s infrastructure and urban fabric across multiple periods.
Archaeological Discoveries
Excavations at Salamis have yielded a diverse assemblage of artifacts spanning from the Late Bronze Age through the Byzantine period. Pottery includes locally produced and imported amphorae and tableware, reflecting extensive trade connections. Numerous inscriptions have been uncovered, including dedicatory texts related to the aqueduct and public buildings, some dating to the Neronian and Severan periods. Coins from various eras, including Hellenistic and Roman imperial issues, attest to economic activity and minting autonomy. Tools associated with agriculture and crafts have been documented alongside domestic objects such as lamps and cooking vessels. Religious artifacts include statuettes, altars, and ritual vessels linked to the cults of Zeus and early Christian worship. Finds have been recovered from domestic quarters, sanctuaries, street layers, and burial contexts, providing a comprehensive picture of urban life and religious practices.
Preservation and Current Status
The preservation of Salamis’ ruins varies considerably. The theatre’s seating tiers are partly reconstructed, preserving less than half of the original rows. The palaestra and baths complex retain substantial architectural elements, including the latrine and water channels, though some masonry is fragmentary. The large water reservoir and double cistern remain structurally intact but are not fully accessible to the public. City walls survive in sections, with some restoration undertaken. The aqueduct is preserved as scattered pillars and arches. Foundations of other buildings are visible but lack superstructures. Modern development near the site poses ongoing challenges to preservation, but controlled excavations and conservation efforts by Cypriot authorities and international teams continue. Some areas have been stabilized without full restoration to maintain archaeological integrity.
Unexcavated Areas
Significant portions of Salamis remain unexcavated or insufficiently studied, including peripheral residential districts and segments of the city wall. Surface surveys and geophysical investigations suggest the presence of buried remains beneath modern agricultural fields and urban expansion zones. Archaeological exploration is limited in some areas due to modern construction and conservation policies. Future excavations are planned but must balance heritage preservation with local development needs. No comprehensive excavation of the entire urban area has been conducted, leaving potential for further discoveries.
