Carthage: A Major Ancient Mediterranean City in Tunisia
Table of Contents
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Official Website: www.commune-carthage.gov.tn
Country: Tunisia
Civilization: Byzantine, Phoenician, Roman
Remains: City
Context
The archaeological site of Ancient Carthage is situated on a peninsula along the northeastern coast of Tunisia, near the modern city of Tunis. This promontory extends into the Mediterranean Sea, providing natural harbors that historically facilitated maritime activities. The elevated terrain, particularly the Byrsa hill, offered a defensible position that became the political and religious heart of the city. Surrounding the site are fertile plains and salt marshes, which contributed to agricultural production and resource exploitation, shaping the economic foundation of the settlement.
Founded by Phoenician settlers in the late 9th century BCE, Carthage developed into a major urban center with successive layers of occupation reflecting Punic, Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, and early Islamic influences. The site’s coastal location enabled control over key maritime routes in the western Mediterranean, underpinning its commercial and military significance. Archaeological investigations have revealed extensive urban remains, fortifications, and religious complexes, illustrating the city’s evolving role over more than a millennium. Present-day conservation efforts address challenges posed by environmental factors and urban encroachment, aiming to preserve the site’s stratified historical record.
History
Ancient Carthage’s history is characterized by its foundation as a Phoenician colony, its rise as a dominant Mediterranean power, destruction by Rome, and subsequent reestablishment as a Roman provincial capital. The site’s strategic position and urban development reflect its importance in regional politics, commerce, and religion. Following its Punic prominence, Carthage underwent significant transformations under Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, and Islamic rule, each phase leaving distinct archaeological and historical traces.
Punic Period (Late 9th century BCE – 146 BCE)
Carthage was founded in the late 9th century BCE, traditionally dated to 814 BCE, by settlers from Tyre. The city occupied a peninsula with natural harbors and an elevated citadel on Byrsa hill, which served as the political and religious center. Archaeological evidence documents a well-planned urban layout comprising four residential quarters, religious precincts, marketplaces, and extensive fortifications extending approximately 33 kilometers. Two artificial harbors, one military and one commercial, were engineered to accommodate large fleets, including wintering docks for about 170 ships, underscoring Carthage’s naval capabilities.
The city’s cultural environment integrated Phoenician, Egyptian, and Hellenic elements, as reflected in funerary masks, stelae, and ceramics. The tophet, a sacred enclosure near the ports, contains thousands of stelae and urns with cremated remains, associated with the deities Tanit and Ba’al Hammon. While the interpretation of the tophet as a site of child sacrifice remains debated, its ritual significance is well attested. Politically, Carthage was governed by elected magistrates known as suffets, a council of elders, and popular assemblies. Prominent families, notably the Barcids, provided military leadership, including the renowned general Hannibal. The city’s expansion and control over territories in Iberia and Sicily led to conflicts with Greek city-states and Rome, culminating in three Punic Wars. The final war ended with Carthage’s destruction in 146 BCE after a prolonged siege, resulting in widespread devastation and annexation by Rome.
Roman Period (146 BCE – 439 CE)
Following its destruction, Carthage was refounded by Rome under Emperor Augustus in 29 BCE as Colonia Iulia Concordia Carthago. The city became the capital of the Roman province of Africa and one of the empire’s largest urban centers, with population estimates ranging from 300,000 to 500,000 inhabitants. The Roman city expanded beyond the Punic core, featuring monumental public buildings such as a forum, basilicas, a theater, an odeon, an amphitheater with a capacity of approximately 30,000, and a circus accommodating around 60,000 spectators. The Baths of Antoninus, constructed between 145 and 162 CE, represent one of the largest Roman bath complexes, with vaulted halls reaching heights exceeding 29 meters.
Residential districts included aristocratic villas adorned with intricate mosaics, exemplified by the “villa of the aviary” and the “mosaic of the horses,” indicating the wealth and cultural refinement of the elite. The city’s water supply was secured by the Zaghouan Aqueduct, which fed large cisterns at La Malga with a capacity of 50,000 to 60,000 cubic meters. Christianity emerged early in Carthage, supported by a diverse population including Roman colonists and a Jewish community. Despite periods of persecution, Christian communities flourished, with notable figures such as Tertullian and Saint Cyprian. Carthage became a major center of Latin Christianity, hosting ecclesiastical councils like the Conference of Carthage in 411 CE, which addressed the Donatist schism. By the 4th century, the city was divided into six districts, each marked by basilicas reflecting organized Christian worship. The Severan dynasty oversaw a period of prosperity and construction, but the city suffered during the 3rd-century crises, including pillaging during the usurpations of Gordian I and Domitius Alexander. The Vandal conquest in 439 CE under King Genseric brought destruction and the imposition of Arian Christianity, accompanied by persecution and expulsion of Catholic clergy.
Byzantine Period and Late Antiquity (533 CE – 698 CE)
In 533 CE, Byzantine Emperor Justinian I reconquered Carthage, reinstating it as the capital of the Byzantine province of Africa and later the Exarchate of Africa. The city experienced a contraction in urban extent and population, with archaeological evidence indicating a retraction of the city center and diminished residential density. Religious tensions persisted, including efforts by Byzantine authorities to subordinate the local Church. The port facilities were deliberately destroyed by the Muslim general Hassan ibn al-Nu’man during the Arab conquest to prevent Byzantine naval return.
In 698 CE, Carthage fell to the Umayyad Caliphate after the Battle of Carthage, ending Byzantine control in North Africa. This event marked a decisive political and military transition, with the regional center shifting to Kairouan and later Tunis. Despite the decline, some monumental structures, such as the Baths of Antoninus, remained in use into the early Islamic period, with historical accounts noting their preservation into the 11th century.
Medieval and Crusader Period (8th century – 13th century)
During the early Islamic period, Carthage continued to be occupied but lost its status as a major urban center. It functioned primarily as a fortified episcopal seat and minor settlement under Muslim rule. The demographic composition shifted to include Muslim inhabitants alongside remaining Christian communities. In 1270, during the Eighth Crusade, Crusader forces captured Carthage, massacring inhabitants and establishing a military base. Subsequently, the Hafsid dynasty recaptured the city and intentionally dismantled its defenses to prevent future military use by hostile powers. Throughout this period, political and economic prominence shifted to nearby Tunis and Kairouan, leaving Carthage in relative decline.
Modern Rediscovery and Archaeological Excavation (19th century – present)
The ruins of Carthage were first systematically surveyed in 1830 by Danish consul Christian Tuxen Falbe, who produced the initial topographical studies. Archaeological excavations commenced in the mid-19th century under Charles Ernest Beulé and Alfred Louis Delattre, focusing on Roman and Punic remains, including necropolises and Christian basilicas. The National Museum of Carthage was established in 1875 on Byrsa hill, housing artifacts spanning Punic, Roman, Paleo-Christian, and Islamic periods.
French-led excavations in the 1920s uncovered the tophet and urns with cremated remains, fueling scholarly debate on ritual practices. From 1972 to 1992, UNESCO coordinated an international campaign to protect and study the site, culminating in its designation as a World Heritage Site in 1979. Excavations revealed residential quarters such as the “Hannibal quarter” on Byrsa hill, featuring typical Punic houses with shops, cisterns, and mosaics. Roman villas with elaborate mosaics and cryptoportici were uncovered near the theater. Public buildings excavated include the theater, odeon, amphitheater, circus, Baths of Antoninus, and several basilicas such as Damous El Karita and Saint Cyprian. The tophet of Salammbô remains a key religious and funerary site, with thousands of stelae and urns reflecting complex ritual traditions. The necropolises cover approximately 60 hectares, with over 3,000 tombs excavated, illustrating funerary practices from inhumation to cremation. Despite protective measures, the site faces ongoing threats from urban expansion, erosion, and limited conservation resources. Collections from the site are primarily displayed in the National Museum of Carthage and the National Museum of Bardo.
Daily Life and Importance by Period
Punic Period (Late 9th century BCE – 146 BCE)
During the Punic era, Carthage was a cosmopolitan Phoenician colony with a population comprising settlers from Tyre and their descendants, alongside cultural influences from Egypt and Greece. The social hierarchy included an aristocratic elite, such as the Barcid family, military commanders, merchants, artisans, laborers, and slaves. Men dominated public, military, and political roles, while women managed domestic affairs and participated in religious activities. Family structures were primarily nuclear but connected through extended kinship networks.
The economy was based on maritime trade, agriculture, and artisanal production. The city’s two artificial harbors supported a substantial naval fleet and commercial shipping, facilitating exchange of commodities such as olive oil, wine, textiles, and metals. Archaeological remains of kilns and workshops indicate pottery, metalworking, and textile manufacturing at both household and industrial scales. Surrounding fertile plains provided grain, vineyards, and olive groves for local consumption and export. Dietary staples included cereals, olives, fish, and fruits, supplemented by imported luxury foods. Clothing consisted mainly of linen and wool tunics, cloaks, and sandals. Domestic architecture featured courtyards, cisterns, and rooms decorated with painted plaster and imported ceramics. The urban plan incorporated residential quarters with shops and marketplaces, where inhabitants procured local and imported goods. Religious life centered on worship of Tanit and Ba’al Hammon, with ritual practices conducted at the tophet sanctuary. Political governance combined elected suffets, a council of elders, and popular assemblies, with inscriptions attesting to magistrates and military leaders.
Roman Period (146 BCE – 439 CE)
After Roman refoundation, Carthage became a diverse provincial capital with an estimated population between 300,000 and 500,000, including Roman colonists, Punic descendants, and a Jewish minority. The social structure featured wealthy landowners, senators, merchants, artisans, freedmen, and slaves. Elite families resided in large villas and urban domus, while lower classes occupied insulae or modest houses. Family life followed Roman patriarchal norms.
The economy combined agriculture—grain, olives, vineyards—with manufacturing and trade. Archaeological evidence of olive presses, pottery workshops, and textile production indicates both household and larger-scale industries. The city’s strategic location and port facilities sustained active Mediterranean commerce. The Zaghouan Aqueduct supplied water for domestic and industrial use. Diet included bread, olives, fish, wine, and fruits, consistent with Roman Mediterranean cuisine. Clothing ranged from tunics and togas among elites to simpler garments for commoners. Domestic interiors were richly decorated with mosaics, frescoes, and furniture; villas like the “villa of the aviary” display intricate mosaics and spatial organization around courtyards and reception rooms. Markets and fora provided venues for purchasing local produce, imported luxury goods, and daily necessities. Religious life was pluralistic, with early Christian communities emerging alongside traditional Roman and Jewish practices. Basilicas and churches, such as those dedicated to Saint Cyprian, served as centers for worship and instruction. The city hosted ecclesiastical councils, reflecting its significance in Latin Christianity. Civic administration featured magistrates and councils, with inscriptions referencing duumviri and other officials. Carthage functioned as the provincial capital of Africa, a major administrative, economic, and religious center within the Roman Empire.
Byzantine Period and Late Antiquity (533 CE – 698 CE)
The Byzantine reconquest brought a reduced but still significant population composed mainly of Romanized Africans and Byzantine officials. Archaeological evidence indicates urban contraction, with a smaller city footprint and diminished residential density. Social stratification persisted, though the elite class was less prominent. Family structures likely remained patriarchal, with Christian religious leaders gaining influence.
Economic activities shifted toward sustaining local needs, with agriculture and limited artisanal production continuing. The destruction of port facilities by Muslim forces curtailed maritime trade, reducing Carthage’s regional commercial role. Archaeological evidence shows continued use of public buildings, including churches and baths, though on a reduced scale. Diet and clothing remained consistent with Mediterranean Christian communities, with bread, olives, and fish central to the diet. Domestic decoration was simpler, reflecting economic contraction. Religious life was dominated by Chalcedonian Christianity under Byzantine ecclesiastical authority, with tensions arising from attempts to control local churches. Administratively, Carthage served as the capital of the Byzantine province and later the Exarchate of Africa, governed by military and civil officials appointed by Constantinople. The city’s diminished size and economic base marked a transition from a thriving metropolis to a regional administrative center until its fall to the Umayyad Caliphate in 698 CE.
Medieval and Crusader Period (8th century – 13th century)
Under early Islamic rule, Carthage’s population declined further, with the city functioning primarily as a fortified episcopal seat and minor settlement. The demographic composition shifted to include Muslim inhabitants alongside remaining Christian communities. Social organization was limited, with few signs of urban complexity. Economic activity was minimal, focused on subsistence agriculture and local crafts. The city lost its commercial prominence, overshadowed by nearby Tunis and Kairouan. Archaeological evidence for domestic life is sparse, but surviving structures suggest modest dwellings with limited decoration.
Religious life reflected Islamic dominance alongside a diminished Christian presence, with mosques and churches coexisting. The Crusader capture in 1270 introduced a brief military occupation, during which the population suffered massacres and the city served as a Crusader base. Subsequent Hafsid reconquest led to deliberate dismantling of fortifications, preventing future military use. Carthage’s role during this period was marginal, reduced to a secondary fortified site without significant political or economic influence, marking the final stage of its urban decline.
Modern Rediscovery and Archaeological Excavation (19th century – present)
Although not a period of habitation, the modern era’s archaeological investigations have profoundly enhanced understanding of Carthage’s daily life across its history. Excavations have revealed residential quarters, workshops, public buildings, and necropolises, providing detailed insights into urban organization, domestic architecture, and social stratification. Finds such as mosaics, inscriptions, and ritual artifacts illuminate cultural practices, economic activities, and religious life. The establishment of museums and conservation efforts reflect the site’s enduring importance as a cultural and historical landmark. Archaeological work continues to clarify Carthage’s complex role in Mediterranean history, preserving evidence of its multifaceted daily life from Punic origins through Roman, Byzantine, and medieval transformations.
Remains
Architectural Features
The archaeological remains at Ancient Carthage encompass a broad chronological range, including Punic, Roman, Byzantine, and later periods. The city’s layout evolved over centuries, with the Punic core centered on Byrsa hill featuring orthogonal street grids and extensive fortifications. Roman Carthage expanded beyond this core, incorporating monumental public buildings, residential villas, and sophisticated infrastructure. Construction techniques include ashlar masonry, Roman concrete (opus caementicium), and vaulted stonework. The site preserves civic, residential, military, and religious structures, though many survive only as foundations, partial walls, mosaics, or underground cisterns. Byzantine contraction is evident in the reduced urban footprint and partial abandonment of earlier quarters. The natural harbors and peninsula topography shaped maritime installations, including two Punic ports with dry docks and wintering basins. Defensive walls from the 5th century BCE and later Roman fortifications remain in sections. The Zaghouan Aqueduct and the large cisterns of La Malga represent significant hydraulic engineering. Public entertainment buildings such as the theater, odeon, amphitheater, and circus survive in varying states. Christian basilicas and ecclesiastical complexes from late antiquity are present, some with baptisteries and associated cemeteries. The tophet, a sacred Punic enclosure, contains thousands of stelae and urns, with evidence of Roman reuse. The site’s stratigraphy reflects successive phases of construction, destruction, and reuse.
Key Buildings and Structures
Acropolium of Carthage (Saint Louis Cathedral)
Constructed at the end of the 19th century during the French protectorate, the Acropolium occupies the summit of Byrsa hill, the historic center of the Punic city. It is located on the presumed site of King Louis IX’s tomb, who died during the Eighth Crusade. Although a modern structure, the Acropolium marks a significant historic overlay and is situated near the National Museum of Carthage and the remains of the principal Punic residential quarter.
Punic Residential Quarter of Byrsa (“Hannibal quarter”)
Located on the summit of Byrsa hill near the Roman forum, this quarter dates to the early 2nd century BCE and was excavated by Serge Lancel. It exhibits a typical Punic urban plan with orthogonal streets approximately six meters wide and beaten earth roadways. Houses include a street-facing room likely used as a shop, a basement cistern for water collection, a long corridor leading to a courtyard with a cesspool, and small rooms arranged around the courtyard. Some floors retain pavimenta punica mosaics set in characteristic red mortar. The quarter is preserved beneath Roman embankments forming the forum’s substructure. Stairs remain in situ to compensate for the hill’s slope. The quarter’s name references the suffet Hannibal, a notable early 2nd-century BCE general.
Punic Residential Quarter of Magon
Situated near the sea and excavated by German archaeologists, this quarter includes a section of the 5th-century BCE rampart protecting the city. It contains a residential area with a villa featuring a peristyle courtyard. The urban layout comprises streets about three meters wide and a prominent nine-meter-wide street leading to a “sea gate” in the rampart. Fragments of Punic columns and upper elements of the seafront wall survive. A small antiquarium on site displays restitutions of the quarter at various periods and a model of a stone extraction well from El Haouaria.
Roman Villas Park (“Roman villas”)
Located near the theater on the eastern slope of Odeon hill, this area contains remains of several Roman villas, including the villa of the aviary and a cryptoporticus (covered corridor). The villa of the aviary dates to the 4th century CE and features a colonnaded courtyard decorated with a mosaic depicting birds among foliage. Its plan emphasizes reception rooms and rich decoration, indicating the owner’s wealth. Nearby is the “mosaic of the horses,” combining mosaics and marble opus sectile panels depicting horses with names suggested by a rebus. Toward the rear of the park lie the Basilica of Damous El Karita and a circular monument of uncertain function, possibly a baptistery or funerary structure. The Kobba Bent el Rey, a vaulted underground construction dated to 320–340 CE, is located on Bordj Djedid hill within the Carthage high school precincts and is the best-preserved residential element on the site despite uncertain original use.
Necropolises of Carthage
The necropolises cover approximately 60 hectares and include over 3,000 to 3,500 excavated tombs. Early cemeteries from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE are located on the hills of Byrsa, Juno, Dermech, and Douimès. From the 4th century BCE, necropolises expanded to the hills of the theater, odeon, Sainte-Monique, and coastal areas such as Ard el-Khéraïb. Tombs are accessed via pits or dromos-type entrances, some reaching depths of up to 27 meters. Funeral chambers measure about 2.20 by 2.80 meters with a height of 1.90 meters. Tombs vary from individual to collective family vaults, sometimes containing up to eight deceased. Interiors include niches, benches, and occasionally wooden paneling ceilings. Approximately 10–15% of inhumed individuals were buried in stone sarcophagi or wooden coffins. Tombs are marked by stones or cippi, some inscribed in Punic calligraphy. Anthropomorphic stelae from the 4th century BCE depict figures in prayerful postures. Funeral inscriptions are concentrated in the aristocratic “City of the Dead” quarter. The necropolises form an arc around the habitation area, including southern Byrsa, northern Baths of Antoninus park, Roman villas area, odeon hill, Juno hill, Bordj Djedid hill, and Sainte-Monique necropolis known as “of the Rabs.” The tophet is a distinct cemetery and sanctuary with funerary and votive functions.
Tophet of Salammbô
Discovered in 1921, the tophet is a sacred Punic enclosure near the ports, associated with the deities Tanit and Ba’al Hammon. It contains urns with ashes of burned children and non-human bones, though the interpretation as a site of child sacrifice remains debated. The site features three types of depositions (Tanit I, II, III) distinguished by stelae styles and decorations, including astral symbols and the sign of Tanit. Most stelae are sandstone from El Haouaria, with some later limestone examples. During the Roman period, the tophet was reused for warehouses, pottery kilns, houses, and a sanctuary dedicated to Saturn. Many stelae are exhibited at the National Museum of Carthage.
Complex of the Basilica of Carthagenna and Paleo-Christian Quarter
Located in the Carthagenna quarter near the old ports and Salammbô area, this complex includes a late 4th-century columned building with Christian decoration identified as a church. It also contains a large 6th-century paleo-Christian basilica with five naves and two apses, accompanied by an attached baptistery. The complex is interpreted as an ecclesiastical center. A small on-site museum preserves objects such as a mosaic with Greek inscriptions (“Greek auriges”) and a broken statuette of Ganymede found in a cistern.
Basilica of Damous El Karita
Excavated in 1878, this basilica is located on the plateau of the odeon and is the first Christian monument discovered in Carthage. Constructed originally in the late 4th century CE, it measured approximately 65 by 45 meters with nine naves and eleven bays in the central space. The complex included a baptistery and possibly housed monks. In its final phase, the basilica was reduced to three naves and five bays, indicating decline. Adjacent is a partly underground circular monument, possibly a baptistery or martyrial structure, featuring an underground rotunda with a dome and two staircases. The monument underwent restoration in 1930 but remains poorly understood. The nearby Mâlik ibn Anas Mosque was inaugurated in 2003.
Basilica of Saint Cyprian
Discovered in 1915 on Borj Djedid plateau, this basilica is identified as the Basilica of Saint Cyprian based on Saint Augustine’s writings locating it near the sea. It consists of seven naves and was surrounded by a large cemetery. Saint Monica reputedly spent the night here before departing for Italy. The site offers views over the Gulf of Tunis and Jebel Boukornine. Excavated and partially restored for the 1930 jubilee, the basilica’s facade was near a ravine overlooking the sea, likely dedicated to sailors’ safety. It is believed to house Saint Cyprian’s body and was in use from the late 4th century CE, including during the Vandal period.
Basilica Majorum
Uncovered between 1906 and 1909 at the Mcidfa site, this early 4th-century basilica possibly served as the burial place of Saints Perpetua and Felicity. An inscription referencing the martyrs’ bodies was found. Saint Augustine preached sermons here. The church was requisitioned by Vandals for Arian worship and later returned to Catholic use under Byzantine rule. It was abandoned in the early 7th century due to urban contraction. The basilica had seven naves and thirteen bays and underwent transformations during Byzantine domination. Presently, only column shafts and some walls remain due to systematic destruction and material reuse.
Basilicas of Douimès
Located in the Baths of Antoninus archaeological park, two basilicas date from the early Byzantine period. The first basilica originally had three naves and was found near a Christian cemetery and a 5th-century BCE Punic tomb. The second basilica is larger, with five naves, two sacristies, an attached baptistery, and a probable martyrium (a place of worship for saints). Both basilicas have suffered degradation from water runoff and tourist traffic since their exhibition.
Theater of Carthage
Constructed in the 2nd century BCE, the theater was designed to accommodate approximately 5,000 spectators. It represents an intermediate architectural type between Greek theaters (dug into the ground) and Roman theaters (built on open ground). The theater underwent significant restoration during Roman times. Early destruction by Vandals was followed by occupation by indigent populations. Few remains of the seating area, stage, and stage building (frons scaenae) survive. Numerous statues, including the marble “Apollo,” were discovered here and are now housed in the National Museum of Bardo. The theater has been used for performances and speeches in the 20th century.
Odeon of Carthage
Adjacent to the theater, the odeon dates to the early 3rd century CE, constructed during the reign of Septimius Severus. Excavated between 1994 and 1999, only a few remains survive, sufficient to understand its relationship to the theater and restoration work. The odeon was a smaller covered theater used for musical and theatrical performances.
Baths of Antoninus
Built between 145 and 162 CE after a major fire, the Baths of Antoninus are the largest thermal complex in Carthage. Restored after a 4th-century earthquake, part of the frigidarium vault collapsed at the end of the 4th or beginning of the 5th century. The baths remained in use until about 638 CE. Only ground-floor service spaces near the shore survive from the original installations. The ruins extend over more than 200 meters along the coastline. Anastylosis of a frigidarium column shows vaults once rose over 29 meters high, equivalent to a six-story building. Changes in topography and sea level rise have partially submerged remains, including the swimming pool. The site served as a stone quarry for centuries, with materials reused in Tunis and Mediterranean cities such as Pisa.
Amphitheater of Carthage
The amphitheater’s original capacity is estimated at 30,000 spectators. Only the arena remains, as the rest was destroyed by looting over centuries. Medieval descriptions mention decorated arches with figures and polished upper arcades. The location of an amphitheatrum castrense (military amphitheater) remains unknown. The tradition of martyrdom of Saints Perpetua and Felicity in 203 CE at this site is likely erroneous.
Circus of Carthage
Now only suggested by a long depression near Douar Chott, the circus site is crossed by a modern road. Excavations by an American team under UNESCO indicate a capacity of approximately 60,000 spectators. Evidence of late occupation in the 7th century by indigent populations is indicated by burials showing malnutrition.
Columned Building on Hill of Juno
This building’s function is unknown. Archaeologists uncovered twinned Corinthian columns and a mosaic-paved floor. It is hypothesized as either a civil basilica or palaestra (exercise hall) of the “Gargilius” baths. Byzantine-period evidence indicates religious activity. The site may have been important during the condemnation of Donatism by Saint Augustine in 411 CE. Nearby, the mosaic of the horses was uncovered in 1960 and is now exhibited in the Roman villas archaeological park.
Punic Ports
Two lagoons along the shore served as military and commercial ports. The military port covers about 8 hectares, and the commercial port is approximately twice that size. The islet called “of the admiralty” in the military port center contains a dry dock. Wintering docks number about 170 around the military port and islet. No visible remains of the navarch’s pavilion survive. The ports likely represent the cothon of the Punic city in its last half-century. Roman remodeling included a public square with colonnades and two buildings, including a temple. Commercial activity focused on loading wheat ships for the annona system.
Cisterns of La Malga
Located north of the Roman city, the cisterns of La Malga are large, well-preserved water reservoirs forming the main arrival point of aqueducts supplying Carthage, including the Zaghouan Aqueduct. The cisterns comprise 15 parallel compartments, each about 100 meters long, 7 meters wide, and 7 meters high under vault. They cover more than one hectare and have an estimated capacity between 50,000 and 60,000 cubic meters. The cisterns connect to the Baths of Antoninus complex by mostly underground pipelines. A museum on site explains the hydraulic installations.
Other Remains
Additional remains include the Punic house of Byrsa; the villa of the aviary and its mosaic; upper elements of the Punic wall surrounding the Magon quarter; Punic lapidary fragments such as column pieces; the Roman villas quarter with the villa at the cryptoporticus; a circular monument near the Basilica of Damous El Karita of uncertain function, possibly baptistery or funerary; numerous lime kilns found especially during clearance of the Baths of Antoninus; Punic tombs in the Baths of Antoninus park and southern flank of Byrsa; mausoleums with bas-relief stucco near the cisterns of La Malga; and a hydraulic facility known as the fountain with a thousand amphorae, now inaccessible.
Remains of the Roman forum, capitol, civil and judicial basilicas, curia, and tabularium on Byrsa hill are very limited due to modern constructions. Roman terracing of Byrsa hill is visible. Foundations of the Roman theater and odeon survive partially, along with ruins of some public buildings. The dry dock on the Admiralty islet remains identifiable. Remains of tophet stelae survive under Roman vaults. The archaeological park of Roman villas includes mosaics and epigraphic collections.
Preservation and Current Status
The preservation of Carthage’s ruins varies considerably. The Baths of Antoninus retain substantial ground-floor remains, including some restored columns. Punic residential quarters and necropolises preserve foundations, mosaics, and funerary monuments, though many structures are fragmentary. Christian basilicas survive as partial walls and column shafts, with some anastylosis. The theater and odeon remain as partial foundations and scattered architectural elements. The amphitheater is reduced to the arena. The cisterns of La Malga are well-preserved vaulted structures. Some modern constructions, such as the Acropolium, overlay ancient remains. Environmental threats include erosion, sea-level rise, and vegetation growth. Urban expansion and looting have damaged parts of the site. Conservation efforts by Tunisian authorities and international teams have stabilized many areas, with selective restoration and protective measures. Some zones are stabilized but not restored to preserve archaeological integrity.
Unexcavated Areas
Several districts and structures remain unexcavated or poorly studied due to modern urban development and conservation policies. Surface surveys and geophysical studies suggest buried remains beneath parts of Byrsa hill, the Roman forum area, and sections of the Punic and Roman quarters. The precise extent of the amphitheater’s superstructure and some port facilities remains unclear. Future excavations are limited by the presence of modern buildings and infrastructure. Ongoing research focuses on non-invasive methods and targeted excavations to balance preservation with archaeological investigation.
