Roman Amphitheatres and Theatres

Overview and list of Roman (Amphi)theatres across the Roman Empire

Roman amphitheatres are large, circular or oval open-air venues with tiered seating. They were constructed by the ancient Romans for various events, including gladiator combats, animal slayings, and executions. Approximately 230 Roman amphitheatres have been discovered throughout the Roman Empire. The earliest amphitheatres date back to the Republican period, while their construction became more monumental during the Imperial era.

Amphitheatres differ from circuses and hippodromes, which were typically rectangular and primarily used for racing events. They also differ from stadia, which were built for athletic competitions. The term amphitheatrum translates to “theatre all around,” indicating its circular or oval shape. This distinguishes it from traditional semicircular Roman theatres.

Roman Amphitheatres and Theatres You Can Still Visit Today

Roman Amphitheatres

The Roman amphitheatre consists of three main components: the cavea, the arena, and the vomitorium. The cavea, meaning “enclosure” in Latin, serves as the seating area. It is formed by concentric rows of stands, which may be supported by arches or constructed from excavated material from the arena.

The cavea is typically organized into three horizontal sections based on the social class of the spectators. The ima cavea is the lowest section, surrounding the arena and reserved for the upper class. The media cavea follows, open to the general public but mostly occupied by men. The summa cavea is the highest section, usually designated for women and children.

The front row is known as the prima cavea, while the last row is called the cavea ultima. The cavea is further divided vertically into cunei, which are wedge-shaped sections separated by stairways called scalae. The entrances at both the arena level and within the cavea are termed vomitoria, designed for the rapid dispersal of large crowds.

History of Roman Amphitheatres

Early Amphitheatres

The origins of the first amphitheatres are uncertain. Records indicate that temporary wooden amphitheatres were constructed in the Forum Romanum for gladiatorial games from the second century BC. Pliny the Elder mentions that Gaius Scribonius Curio invented the amphitheatre in 53 BC by rotating two wooden semicircular theatres. However, earlier stone amphitheatres, known as spectacula, have been discovered.

The earliest known stone amphitheatres have been identified in Campania, specifically at Capua, Cumae, and Liternum, built towards the end of the second century BC. The amphitheatre of Pompeii, constructed shortly after 70 BC, is one of the best-documented early examples. Other early amphitheatres include those at Abella, Teanum, and Cales, dating to the Sullan era, and those at Puteoli and Telesia from the Augustan period.

Amphitheatres in the Imperial Era

During the Imperial era, amphitheatres became integral to the Roman urban landscape. Cities competed to construct monumental amphitheatres, which could accommodate between 40,000 and 60,000 spectators, with the largest venues holding up to 100,000. These structures featured multistoried façades and were often elaborately decorated with marble and stucco.

As the Roman Empire expanded, most amphitheatres remained concentrated in the Latin-speaking Western regions. In the Eastern provinces, spectacles were typically held in theatres or stadia. Amphitheatres were built as part of Romanization efforts, funded by private benefactors or local governments to enhance municipal status.

Decline of Amphitheatre Construction

Several factors contributed to the decline of amphitheatre construction. Gladiatorial games began to fade from public life in the 3rd century due to economic pressures and philosophical opposition, particularly from the rising influence of Christianity. This new religion viewed such games as immoral and wasteful.

While venationes continued until the sixth century, they became increasingly rare and expensive. The shift in public beneficence from civic projects to charitable acts further reduced funding for amphitheatres. The last recorded amphitheatre construction occurred in 523 in Pavia under Theodoric.

As the use of amphitheatres diminished, many fell into disrepair. Some were dismantled for building materials, while others were repurposed as fortifications or Christian churches. A notable example includes the Colosseum, which became a Christian pilgrimage site and was partially used for religious purposes from the medieval period onward.

Roman Theatre

It is believed that Roman theatre emerged during the early years of the Republic, around 364 BC, coinciding with the expansion of Roman rule across the Italian Peninsula. The introduction of theatrical games followed a devastating plague, as citizens sought to appease the gods through performances.

As the Roman Republic evolved, theatrical performances became part of public celebrations known as ludi. The largest of these festivals, the Ludi Romani, was held in September in honor of Jupiter. In 240 BC, Livius Andronicus became the first to translate Greek plays for Roman audiences. Prior to this, Roman entertainment was influenced by various local traditions, including Phylakes, Atellan farces, and Fescennine verses. These early forms of drama laid the groundwork for the development of Roman theatre.

Genres of Ancient Roman Theatre

The first notable works of Roman literature were tragedies and comedies written by Livius Andronicus starting in 240 BC. Gnaeus Naevius, a contemporary of Andronicus, also contributed to both genres. However, no plays from either playwright have survived. By the early 2nd century BC, drama was firmly established in Rome, leading to the formation of a guild of writers known as collegium poetarum.

No early Roman tragedies have survived, but historians recognize three early tragedians: Ennius, Pacuvius, and Lucius Accius. Tragedy was distinguished by the use of choruses, which were integral to performances. From the imperial period, the works of Seneca, a Stoic philosopher, are notable. Nine of his tragedies survive, all of which are classified as fabulae crepidatae, or Latin tragedies based on Greek subjects.

Roman Comedy

All surviving Roman comedies fall under the category of fabula palliata, which are adaptations of Greek subjects. The primary playwrights of this genre are Plautus and Terence. No fabula togata, or Roman comedies set in a Roman context, have survived. The adaptations made by Roman comic dramatists included the removal of the chorus and the addition of musical accompaniment to enhance the dialogue.

Plautus, active between 205 and 184 BC, is known for his farces, with twenty of his comedies surviving today. His witty dialogue and varied poetic meters contributed to the popularity of his plays. Terence, who wrote between 166 and 160 BC, produced six comedies that have survived. His complex plots often combined multiple Greek originals, leading to criticism regarding his adaptations.

Character Types in Roman Comedy

Roman comedies featured stock characters that became archetypes in the genre. The adulescens is a young man pursuing love, often accompanied by a clever slave. The senex is a father figure concerned with his son’s choices, while the leno represents a morally questionable pimp. Other characters include the miles gloriosus, an arrogant soldier, and the matrona, a wife and mother. These character types contributed to the comedic structure of Roman plays.

Performance Spaces and Staging

Theatre performances in Rome began in 240 BC, often during public festivals. Initially, plays were staged in temporary wooden structures due to the lack of permanent venues. High-ranking officials opposed the construction of permanent theatres, fearing that excessive attendance would corrupt public morals. The first permanent theatre, built by Pompey the Great in 55 BC, could accommodate 20,000 spectators and featured a grand stage.

Roman theatres were modeled after Greek designs, typically arranged in a semicircle around an orchestra. The stage and scene building were integrated with the auditorium, creating an enclosed space similar to modern theatres. The audience was divided into zones, reflecting social hierarchies, with the summa cavea reserved for lower-status individuals. The construction of theatres often required significant funding from benefactors, who sought to maintain civil order through public entertainment.

Actors in Roman Theatre

Actors in the republic were primarily from Etruria and faced social stigma. By the late Republic and Imperial periods, actors came from various backgrounds, especially freedmen, slaves, and foreigners. They lacked political rights and were often viewed as having low status, almost similar to criminals. Despite this, successful actors could gain freedom and recognition. The physical demands of acting required stamina and agility, and acting companies typically consisted of a small number of trained performers.

Quintus Roscius Gallus, a prominent actor of the late Republic, gained fame for his comedic performances. He became well-connected within elite circles and taught aspiring actors. Contrary to earlier beliefs, evidence suggests that women occasionally performed speaking roles, although they were rare. Successful female performers existed, and there were guilds for women in theatre, indicating a more complex landscape of performance than previously understood.