Lilibeo (Lilybaeum): A Strategic Phoenician, Carthaginian, and Roman Settlement in Western Sicily
Table of Contents
Visitor Information
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Official Website: www.parcolilibeo.it
Country: Italy
Civilization: Phoenician, Roman
Remains: Burial, City, Civic, Domestic, Economic, Entertainment, Infrastructure, Military, Religious, Sanitation
Context
Lilibeo, historically known as Lilybaeum, is situated on the western coast of Sicily near the modern city of Marsala in the province of Trapani, Italy. The site occupies the Capo Boeo promontory, a strategic headland overlooking the Tyrrhenian Sea, which provided natural harbors and facilitated control over maritime routes across the central Mediterranean. The surrounding landscape includes fertile plains conducive to agriculture, enhancing the settlement’s economic potential throughout antiquity.
Established as a fortified settlement in the late 5th century BCE, Lilibeo’s location was pivotal for Carthaginian naval operations and later Roman administration. Its coastal position allowed it to serve as a military stronghold and commercial port, linking Sicily with North Africa and other Mediterranean regions. Archaeological investigations have revealed stratified remains from Punic and Roman periods, illustrating the site’s long-term occupation and evolving urban fabric. Preservation of structures varies, with some fortifications and buildings extant in situ, while others survive only through excavation. Contemporary conservation efforts aim to safeguard these remains amid the expanding urban environment of Marsala.
As a site, Lilibeo offers critical insights into the interplay of indigenous, Phoenician, Carthaginian, and Roman influences in western Sicily, reflecting broader geopolitical dynamics in the Mediterranean from the late first millennium BCE through late antiquity.
History
Lilibeo’s historical trajectory exemplifies the complex cultural and political interactions that shaped western Sicily. Founded as a Phoenician refuge in the late 5th century BCE, it developed into a fortified Carthaginian naval base before its incorporation into the Roman provincial system. The city’s strategic maritime position and robust defenses made it a focal point during the Punic Wars and subsequent Roman civil conflicts. Its evolution from a militarized settlement to a municipium with administrative and religious functions reflects broader regional transformations. Lilibeo’s decline in late antiquity and eventual abandonment following the Arab conquest illustrate the shifting political and economic landscapes of Sicily.
Pre-Punic and Phoenician Foundation (Pre-5th century BCE – 397 BCE)
Prior to Phoenician colonization, the Capo Boeo promontory was intermittently utilized by the indigenous Sican people during the Chalcolithic period, as evidenced by archaeological finds indicating sporadic occupation without permanent settlement. According to the historian Diodorus Siculus, Lilibeo was established in 397 BCE by Phoenician exiles displaced after the destruction of the nearby island colony of Motya by Dionysius I of Syracuse. This foundation marked the creation of a fortified urban center designed to serve as a refuge and military stronghold for the displaced Phoenician population.
The initial urban plan incorporated massive defensive walls constructed of large stone blocks, complemented by two deep moats (fossati) flanking the northern and southern perimeters. These fortifications, some remnants of which remain visible today, enabled Lilibeo to resist sieges by Dionysius in 368 BCE and later by Pyrrhus of Epirus in 277 BCE. The settlement’s layout and defensive architecture reflect its role as a militarized enclave within a contested landscape, emphasizing security and control over maritime access.
Carthaginian Rule and the Punic Wars (397 BCE – 241 BCE)
During the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE, Lilibeo functioned as a principal Carthaginian stronghold in western Sicily, strategically positioned to oversee maritime routes between Carthage and Sardinia. The city’s fortifications were formidable, with walls exceeding ten meters in height and seven meters in thickness, constructed primarily of large ashlar masonry. In response to the siege by Pyrrhus in 278 BCE, a secondary wall was erected approximately ten meters in front of the original, further reinforcing the city’s defenses.
Lilibeo’s harbor complex comprised three interconnected basins, facilitating both military and commercial naval activities. The city withstood multiple sieges, including a protracted nine-year Roman siege commencing in 250 BCE during the First Punic War. The Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca fortified the nearby hilltop settlement of Erice to protect Lilibeo from Roman advances. The war began with Carthaginian forces landing at Lilibeo around 265–264 BCE, and despite Roman naval defeats such as the Battle of Drepana in 249 BCE, the city ultimately capitulated to Rome in 241 BCE under the terms of the peace treaty concluding the conflict.
Roman Republican and Imperial Period (241 BCE – 4th century CE)
Following its transfer to Roman control, Lilibeo was incorporated as a municipium within the province of Sicilia. It rapidly developed into a prosperous commercial center, leveraging its port and Mediterranean trade connections. Cicero, serving as quaestor in Sicily circa 76–75 BCE, described Lilibeo as a “splendidissima civitas,” highlighting its wealth and administrative significance. The city hosted one of Sicily’s two Roman quaestorships, the other located in Syracuse, underscoring its political importance.
During the Roman civil wars, Lilibeo endured sieges by Sextus Pompeius in 43 BCE and by Lepidus in 38 BCE, prompting reinforcement of its fortifications, as attested by epigraphic evidence. Archaeological investigations reveal two principal construction phases: an earlier Republican phase dating to the 2nd–1st centuries BCE and a later Imperial phase from the late 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. Luxurious private residences from the Imperial period feature mosaic floors and private baths, indicative of affluent inhabitants. Public infrastructure included paved streets, notably the Decumanus Maximus, and large insulae or city blocks. Religious dedications to deities such as Venus and Isis are documented through statues and inscriptions. Funerary hypogea, including the tomb of Crispia Salvia, display vivid polychrome frescoes depicting banquets and mythological scenes. By the 4th century CE, the city walls were abandoned, with new constructions encroaching upon their remains, signaling a decline in military relevance.
Late Antiquity and Vandal Period (5th–8th centuries CE)
In the early 5th century CE, Lilibeo came under Vandal control following incursions by the Vandal king Trasamund and his wife Amalafrida. Despite political agreements with Odoacer, who governed the remainder of Sicily, Lilibeo remained a Vandal stronghold. The Byzantine general Belisarius reconquered the city during Emperor Justinian’s campaigns in the 6th century CE. However, Byzantine administration exhibited limited investment in the city, which suffered from pirate raids and outbreaks of disease such as dysentery.
During this period, Lilibeo functioned as a Christian episcopal seat from at least the early 5th century CE, indicating an established ecclesiastical hierarchy. Archaeological evidence for this era is sparse but includes modifications to existing structures. Over subsequent centuries, the city’s population and urban fabric declined, culminating in its disappearance from historical records following the Arab conquest in the 9th century CE.
Arab Conquest and Medieval Period (9th century CE and later)
The Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century CE resulted in the abandonment of Lilibeo as an inhabited urban center. The nearby settlement of Marsala emerged under Arab influence, with its name possibly derived from Arabic terms meaning “Ali’s harbor” or “God’s harbor.” From the 11th century onward, the region experienced successive dominations by Norman, Swabian, Angevin, Aragonese, and Spanish rulers.
Marsala developed as a commercial port during the medieval and early modern periods, although its maritime activity declined after Emperor Charles V blocked the nearby harbor of Punta Alga. Lilibeo’s ancient remains became integrated into the expanding urban fabric of Marsala, transitioning from a living city to an archaeological site reflecting Sicily’s layered historical legacy.
Archaeological Investigations and Modern Research (19th century – present)
Systematic archaeological exploration of Lilibeo commenced in the 19th century, revealing Punic fortifications, urban structures, and harbor installations. Since 1939, excavations have uncovered extensive Roman-era buildings, including atrium houses, paved streets, and necropolises with richly decorated tombs. Noteworthy discoveries include the 2nd-century CE marble statue of Venus Callipygos, known as the “Venere Lilybetana,” and the hypogeum of Crispia Salvia, distinguished by its polychrome frescoes.
Remnants of Punic defensive walls and moats remain partially visible within modern Marsala. The Baglio Anselmi Archaeological Museum conserves a unique Punic warship recovered from the seabed, providing rare physical evidence of Carthaginian naval technology. Since 2002, the Parco Archeologico di Lilibeo-Marsala has been developed to protect and study the site. In 2006, Lilibeo and the nearby island of Mozia were proposed as UNESCO World Heritage sites for their significance in Phoenician-Punic civilization in Italy. Current conservation efforts focus on integrating the archaeological remains within the urban context while facilitating ongoing research and public awareness.
Daily Life and Importance by Period
Pre-Punic and Phoenician Foundation (Pre-5th century BCE – 397 BCE)
The initial Phoenician settlement at Lilibeo was primarily a militarized community composed of exiles from Motya and their descendants. The population was organized around defense and survival, with male elites likely overseeing military and civic affairs, while women managed domestic responsibilities. Economic activities centered on maritime trade and exploitation of nearby fertile plains, supporting agriculture of cereals, olives, and grapes. Fishing supplemented the diet, consistent with Mediterranean coastal subsistence patterns.
Residences were clustered within the fortified perimeter, featuring functional interiors with storage for foodstuffs. Imported luxury goods such as pottery and textiles circulated through Phoenician trade networks. Transportation relied on small coastal vessels and overland routes connecting to inland agricultural zones. Religious practices adhered to Phoenician polytheism, venerating deities such as Baal and Astarte, although no temples from this period have been excavated. The settlement’s character was that of a fortified refuge rather than a fully developed polis.
Carthaginian Rule and the Punic Wars (397 BCE – 241 BCE)
Under Carthaginian dominion, Lilibeo expanded as a naval and military hub with a diverse population including Carthaginian settlers, Punic inhabitants, and allied indigenous groups. The social hierarchy was dominated by military commanders and mercantile elites, supported by artisans and laborers engaged in shipbuilding and provisioning. The city’s extensive fortifications and harbor installations reflect its strategic orientation toward defense and maritime control.
Economic life encompassed large-scale shipbuilding, naval logistics, and trade in commodities such as grain, olive oil, and ceramics. Archaeological evidence of harbor basins and moats confirms the importance of maritime commerce. Household economies combined artisanal production with agricultural estates in the surrounding countryside. Dietary staples included bread, olives, fish, and wine. Clothing styles reflected Punic traditions, with tunics and cloaks adapted for civilian and military use. Markets facilitated exchange of local and imported goods, while transportation relied on maritime vessels and maintained roads. Religious life centered on worship of Punic deities including Baal Hammon and Tanit, with ritual activities likely conducted in sanctuaries outside the city walls.
Roman Republican and Imperial Period (241 BCE – 4th century CE)
Following Roman annexation, Lilibeo’s population became ethnically and culturally diverse, comprising Roman settlers, local Sicilians, and Punic descendants. Civic administration included magistracies such as duumviri and quaestors, reflecting Roman municipal organization. Family structures ranged from elite landowners and merchants to artisans and slaves, with gender roles aligned to Roman patriarchal norms. Cicero’s characterization of Lilibeo as a “splendidissima civitas” attests to its prosperity and administrative prominence.
Economic activities flourished through maritime trade, agriculture (grain, olives, vineyards), and artisanal production. Excavations reveal large Roman houses with mosaic floors, private baths, and atria, indicative of affluent domestic lifestyles. Dietary remains show consumption of cereals, olives, fish, and imported wine. The urban layout featured paved streets, including the Decumanus Maximus, public squares, and insulae supporting commercial activity. Religious practices incorporated Roman deities such as Venus, evidenced by the “Venere Lilybetana” statue, alongside Egyptian cults like Isis, reflecting cultural syncretism. Funerary customs included elaborately decorated hypogea such as the tomb of Crispia Salvia, illustrating social status and beliefs in the afterlife. The city’s fortifications were reinforced during civil wars, underscoring its strategic role. Educational and cultural life likely involved public readings and civic ceremonies, though direct evidence is limited. By the late Imperial period, urban decline is indicated by abandonment of city walls and encroachment of new buildings.
Late Antiquity and Vandal Period (5th–8th centuries CE)
During the 5th century CE, Lilibeo’s population contracted and social structures adapted under Vandal and Byzantine rule. The community included Romanized inhabitants, Christian clergy, and possibly Vandal officials. Ecclesiastical leadership became prominent, with Lilibeo serving as an episcopal see, indicating organized Christian worship and clerical hierarchy. Family and social life adjusted to the challenges of warfare, disease, and economic contraction.
Economic activities focused on subsistence agriculture and limited trade, with sparse archaeological evidence for industrial or artisanal production. Dietary patterns remained Mediterranean but less diverse due to instability. Domestic spaces were modified for defense, with fewer luxury features. Markets and transportation declined amid pirate raids and insecurity. Religious life centered on Christian rites, with churches replacing pagan temples. Educational activities likely involved catechetical instruction by clergy. Lilibeo’s civic role shifted from municipium to diminished episcopal center, with waning military importance. The city’s decline culminated in abandonment following the Arab conquest, reflecting broader regional transformations.
Arab Conquest and Medieval Period (9th century CE and later)
After the Arab conquest, Lilibeo ceased to function as an inhabited urban center. Its population dispersed or relocated to emerging settlements such as Marsala, which developed under Arab and later Norman rule. Daily life in the region adapted to Islamic agricultural practices, trade networks, and social customs. Direct archaeological evidence for daily life at Lilibeo during this period is minimal due to abandonment and urban discontinuity.
Religious life transitioned to Islam, with mosques and religious schools supplanting Christian institutions. Subsequent Norman and European influences further transformed social and economic structures. Lilibeo’s ancient remains were gradually incorporated into Marsala’s expanding urban fabric, preserving its historical legacy within a changing cultural landscape.
Remains
Architectural Features
The archaeological site of Lilibeo extends over approximately 28 hectares on the Capo Boeo promontory, now largely subsumed within the modern urban area of Marsala. The site preserves stratified remains spanning from the late 5th century BCE Phoenician and Punic phases through the Roman Imperial period. Construction techniques include large ashlar masonry in Punic fortifications and Roman concrete (opus caementicium) and brickwork in later structures. The urban plan exhibits a fortified harbor settlement with an orthogonal street grid, including a principal east-west axis identified as the decumanus maximus, dating to the 2nd century BCE. The city experienced significant rebuilding phases in the 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE. Surviving remains encompass military, domestic, religious, and funerary architecture, though many are fragmentary or partially excavated.
Key Buildings and Structures
City Walls and Fortifications
The defensive system of Lilibeo originated in the late 5th to early 4th century BCE during the Phoenician and Punic periods. The Punic city walls reached heights exceeding 10 meters and thicknesses of approximately 7 meters, constructed from large stone blocks. These fortifications were complemented by two deep ditches (fossati) to the north and south, of which limited sections remain visible within modern Marsala. Around 278 BCE, during Pyrrhus of Epirus’ siege, a secondary wall was erected roughly 10 meters in front of the original, enhancing defensive capacity. Under Roman rule, the walls were further reinforced during the civil wars of the 1st century BCE, notably in 43 BCE and 38 BCE, as documented by inscriptions. By the 4th century CE, the walls were abandoned, with subsequent construction encroaching upon or overlaying their remains. Presently, remnants of the Punic walls and ditches survive but are largely inaccessible due to urban development and public works.
Residential Insula with Imperial Roman Villas
A substantial residential insula was uncovered in 1939, comprising spacious rooms arranged around a tetrastyle atrium and a peristyle courtyard. Excavations in 1972 identified two principal construction phases: an earlier Republican phase dating to the 2nd–1st centuries BCE and a later Imperial phase from the late 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. The insula contains two richly appointed Roman residences featuring mosaic floors and private thermal baths. Architectural elements such as marble paving and structural remains have been uncovered during excavations in the 2000s. The insula is bordered by partially paved streets, reflecting an organized urban grid. These villas exhibit typical Roman domestic features, including reception rooms and bathing facilities, constructed using brick and stone masonry with decorative flooring.
Hypogeum of Crispia Salvia
The hypogeum of Crispia Salvia is an underground funerary chamber dating to the 2nd century CE. It is decorated with vividly colored frescoes depicting scenes such as a flautist accompanied by dancers, a funeral banquet, and erotic figures amid garlands and baskets of flowers and fruit. The chamber was dedicated by a husband to his wife, Crispia Salvia. The hypogeum’s walls preserve finely executed polychrome paintings. Access is controlled and available by reservation, reflecting the structure’s fragile condition. Carved into bedrock, it represents a rare example of painted Roman funerary architecture in the region.
Statue of Venus Callipygia (“Venere Lilybetana”)
Discovered in January 2005 near the Church of San Giovanni Battista al Boeo, this Roman marble statue dates to the second half of the 2nd century CE. It is a copy of a 2nd-century BCE Hellenistic original and depicts the goddess Aphrodite symbolizing fertility and vitality. Carved from a single block of crystalline marble, the statue is headless and missing parts of both arms and legs. It is currently housed at the Museo Archeologico Regionale Lilibeo “Baglio Anselmi.” The statue’s craftsmanship reflects high-quality Roman sculptural techniques and contributes to understanding the artistic milieu of Lilibeo during the Imperial period.
Statue of Isis and Potential Temple of Hercules
Excavations in the summer of 2008 near the Roman villa uncovered a statue of the goddess Isis, identified by the characteristic hand position on the chest. A small column bearing a Greek inscription mentioning Isis was found in the same area. Epigraphic evidence also attests to the existence of a sanctuary dedicated to Hercules within Lilibeo, though its precise location remains unidentified. These finds indicate the presence of religious cults and associated structures dating to the Roman Imperial period. The Isis statue and inscription suggest localized worship integrated into the urban fabric.
Decumanus Maximus (Main Street)
Excavations conducted in 2007 revealed the layout of Lilibeo’s principal east-west street, the decumanus maximus, dating to the 2nd century BCE. This paved thoroughfare corresponds to the modern Viale Vittorio Veneto in Marsala. The street was part of the city’s orthogonal grid plan and was flanked by buildings and insulae. The discovery of the decumanus provides evidence of the city’s urban organization during the late Republican period and its continuity into the Imperial era.
Necropolises and Funerary Monuments
Several necropolises from the Hellenistic and Roman periods have been uncovered around Lilibeo. These burial areas include painted tombs and funerary monuments with exceptional preservation of polychrome decoration. The tombs feature frescoes and architectural elements carved in stone, illustrating funerary customs and artistic styles from the 3rd century BCE through the 2nd century CE. The hypogeum of Crispia Salvia is among the most notable funerary monuments. These cemeteries are located outside the ancient city limits, consistent with Roman burial practices.
Other Remains
Surface traces of city walls, floor layers of public and private buildings, and architectural fragments are visible within the archaeological area. Marble blocks and construction materials have been found but are not always accessible due to urban encroachment. The site preserves remains from two main phases of urban rebuilding in the 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE. Some mosaics and building foundations lie beneath modern structures in Marsala. The archaeological park includes Punic fortifications and Roman imperial residences with private baths. The area was abandoned during the medieval period and rediscovered through modern archaeological investigations.
Carthaginian Ship (Museo “Baglio Anselmi”)
The Museo Archeologico Regionale Lilibeo “Baglio Anselmi” conserves a unique Punic warship recovered from the seabed off Marsala. The ship dates to the First Punic War and was used in the Battle of the Aegates Islands in 241 BCE. Its hull construction demonstrates Phoenician-Punic shipbuilding techniques, including prefabrication marked with Phoenician alphabet signs on each plank. The shipwreck contained amphorae, spears, a wooden block possibly used for cooking fires, olive pits, plant leaves, and a well-preserved rope. Preservation was aided by special algae in the nearby Stagnone Lagoon, which created a vacuum-like conservation environment. This artifact provides rare physical evidence of Carthaginian naval technology.
Archaeological Discoveries
Excavations at Lilibeo have yielded a variety of artifacts spanning the Punic through Roman Imperial periods. Pottery includes amphorae used for storage and transport, as well as tableware fragments found in domestic and harbor contexts. Inscriptions in Latin and Greek have been recovered, including dedicatory texts to deities such as Venus, Isis, and Hercules. Coins from various Roman emperors and local issues have been found, indicating active economic circulation. Tools related to agriculture and crafts appear in workshop areas. Domestic objects such as lamps and cooking vessels have been uncovered in residential quarters. Religious artifacts include statuettes and altars associated with the cults of Isis and Hercules. These finds collectively document the material culture and economic activities of Lilibeo’s inhabitants.
Preservation and Current Status
The remains of Lilibeo vary in preservation from well-preserved architectural elements to fragmentary ruins. The Punic fortifications survive in partial sections but are largely inaccessible due to modern urban development and public works. Roman residential structures, including the insula with villas, retain mosaic pavements and structural features, though some are fragmentary. The hypogeum of Crispia Salvia is preserved but requires controlled access. The statue of Venus Callipygia is conserved in a museum setting. The decumanus maximus is visible in excavated segments beneath modern streets. Conservation efforts focus on stabilizing exposed remains and integrating them within Marsala’s urban fabric. The Parco Archeologico di Lilibeo-Marsala, established in 2019, oversees ongoing research and preservation. Environmental factors and urban expansion pose challenges to site integrity.
Unexcavated Areas
Several parts of the ancient city remain unexcavated or poorly studied, particularly areas beneath modern Marsala’s urban center. Surface surveys and geophysical studies suggest buried remains of public buildings, residential quarters, and additional fortifications. The precise locations of some religious sanctuaries, such as the temple of Hercules, remain unidentified. Urban development limits excavation opportunities, and some areas are protected for conservation rather than excavation. Future archaeological work is planned but constrained by the need to balance heritage preservation with the city’s infrastructure. Research continues to reveal new discoveries through targeted excavations and non-invasive methods.
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