Overview of all Greek Rulers

This page presents a complete chronological overview of the most important rulers and leaders of the Greek world, covering both the early Archaic city-states and the later Hellenic kingdoms. From the legendary kings of Sparta and the statesmen of Athens to the monarchs of Macedon and the successors of Alexander the Great, it lists each figure with their active period and a concise summary of their political, military, or cultural influence within the broader development of ancient Greece.

Seleucid Rulers

Title	Date	Excerpt
Seleucus I Nicator: Founder of the Seleucid Empire and Its Historical Impact	305 – September 280 BC	Seleucus I Nicator established the Seleucid dynasty, governing a vast territory from Anatolia to India for nearly three centuries. His reign reshaped political boundaries, founded key cities, and blended Greek and local cultures, leaving a lasting influence on the Near East.
Antiochus I Soter: Stabilizer of the Seleucid Empire and Hellenistic Ruler	September 280 – 261 BC	Antiochus I Soter governed the Seleucid Empire from 281 to 261 BC, strengthening its eastern provinces, fostering cultural integration, and engaging in military and diplomatic efforts that shaped the Hellenistic world.
Antiochus II Theos: Ruler of the Seleucid Empire and His Historical Impact	261–246 BC	Antiochus II Theos governed the Seleucid Empire during the mid-3rd century BC, maintaining a vast Hellenistic realm through military, diplomatic, and dynastic strategies. His reign influenced the political landscape of the Near East, setting the stage for future conflicts and territorial changes.
Seleucus II Callinicus: King of the Seleucid Empire and His Reign	246–226 BC	Seleucus II Callinicus ruled the Seleucid Empire from 246 to 225 BC, navigating wars, internal conflicts, and territorial losses that shaped the dynasty's future. His reign maintained the dynasty's continuity despite challenges from rival states and family divisions.
Seleucus III: A Brief Reign of the Seleucid Empire	226–223 BC	Seleucus III ruled the Seleucid Empire during the mid third century BCE, facing military challenges and internal instability that shaped the dynasty's future under his successor.
Antiochus III: The Seleucid Empire’s Restorer and Challenger to Rome	223–187 BC	Antiochus III, known as Antiochus the Great, revitalized the Seleucid Empire through military campaigns and diplomatic efforts, expanding its reach across West and Central Asia before facing defeat by Rome, which reshaped the region's power dynamics.
Seleucus IV Philopator: Stabilizing the Seleucid Empire under Roman Influence	187–175 BC	Seleucus IV Philopator ruled the Seleucid Empire from 187 to 175 BC, focusing on stabilizing the realm after military defeat, managing heavy financial burdens, and maintaining diplomatic relations amid Roman dominance and regional challenges.
Antiochus IV Epiphanes	175 – late 164 BC	Antiochus IV Epiphanes governed the Seleucid Empire during a critical era marked by cultural patronage, military campaigns, and internal conflicts that influenced the Hellenistic world and its interactions with Rome and neighboring powers.
Antiochus V Eupator: The Child King of the Seleucid Empire	Late 164 – 162 BC	Antiochus V Eupator ruled the declining Seleucid Empire as a child king from 164 to 162 BC, during a period marked by internal conflicts, military challenges, and Roman influence that shaped the dynasty's final decades.
Demetrius I Soter	162–150 BC	Demetrius I Soter ruled the Seleucid Empire from 162 to 150 BC, temporarily restoring central authority amid internal conflicts and external pressures from Rome and neighboring states. His military campaigns and political actions shaped the empire's trajectory during a critical period of decline.
Alexander Balas: The Contested Seleucid King	152–145 BC	Alexander Balas ruled the Seleucid kingdom from 150 to 145 BC during a period of internal strife and external threats, notably the rise of the Parthians. His reign highlights the complex interplay of dynastic claims, foreign alliances, and regional power struggles that shaped the late Hellenistic world.
Demetrius II Nicator	147–139 BC	Demetrius II Nicator ruled the Seleucid Empire during a turbulent period marked by territorial losses to Parthia and shifting power dynamics in the Levant, influencing the region's political landscape and the rise of Jewish autonomy.
Antiochus VI Dionysus: A Child King of the Seleucid Empire	145–142 BC	Antiochus VI Dionysus was a child monarch whose brief reign during the mid-2nd century BC highlights the fragmentation of Seleucid authority and the rise of military power in the empire's final decades.
Antiochus VII Sidetes: Last Effective Seleucid King and His Historical Impact	139–129 BC	Antiochus VII Sidetes ruled the Seleucid Empire from 138 to 129 BCE, briefly restoring central authority and reclaiming eastern territories before his death marked the decline of Seleucid power.
Alexander II Zabinas: Late Seleucid Ruler and His Role in Hellenistic Syria	128 - 123 BCE	Alexander II Zabinas ruled Syria from 128 to 123 BC during the final years of the Seleucid dynasty, illustrating the complex interplay of foreign influence, dynastic rivalry, and political legitimacy in a fracturing empire.
Seleucus V Philometor: The Last Phase of Seleucid Rule	126/125 BCE	Seleucus V Philometor briefly claimed the Seleucid throne around 126–125 BC during a period marked by dynastic conflict, Parthian influence, and the decisive role of royal women, illustrating the decline of Seleucid authority in Syria.
Cleopatra Thea: Influential Queen of the Seleucid Kingdom	125 - 121 BCE	Cleopatra Thea played a pivotal role in the late Seleucid kingdom, navigating dynastic struggles, foreign alliances, and political power as a queen who shaped succession and royal imagery in the Hellenistic world.
Antiochus VIII Grypus: The Last Seleucid King of Syria	125 - 96 BCE	Antiochus VIII Grypus ruled Syria during the final decades of the Seleucid Empire, navigating dynastic conflicts and external pressures that hastened the kingdom's fragmentation and decline.
Antiochus IX Cyzicenus: The Late Seleucid King and His Role in Syrian Hellenistic History	116/113 - 95 BCE	Antiochus IX Cyzicenus was a late Seleucid ruler whose reign was marked by dynastic conflict and territorial fragmentation in Syria during the second century BCE. His alliances and battles illustrate the challenges faced by the declining Seleucid kingdom amid internal divisions and external influences.
Seleucus VI Epiphanes Nicator: A Late Seleucid King in Syria	96 - 94 BCE	Seleucus VI Epiphanes Nicator ruled parts of the fragmented Seleucid kingdom around 96 to 94 BCE, illustrating the era's contested kingship, reliance on coinage for military funding, and tense relations with cities. His brief reign highlights the challenges of maintaining authority amid dynastic rivalry and local resistance.
Demetrius III: The Late Seleucid King of Syria on Ancient History and Archaeology	96 - 87 BCE	Demetrius III ruled parts of Syria during the final phase of the Seleucid dynasty, blending Hellenistic royal traditions with local Syrian religious practices and engaging in military and political struggles that shaped the region's late Hellenistic period.
Antiochus X: The Last Seleucid King of Syria	95 - 92 BCE	Antiochus X Eusebes Philopator ruled parts of Syria during the final decades of the Seleucid dynasty, striving to maintain authority amid dynastic conflicts, local alliances, and external pressures from Parthians and others.
Antiochus XI: The Brief Reign of a Seleucid King	94 - 93 BCE	Antiochus XI Epiphanes Philadelphus was a Seleucid ruler who briefly controlled Antioch during a turbulent period of dynastic conflict in the late 2nd century BC. His reign, though short, provides valuable insight into the political struggles and numismatic evidence of the declining Seleucid empire.
Philip I Philadelphus: Last Seleucid King of Syria	94 - 75 BCE	Philip I Philadelphus ruled parts of the fragmented Seleucid realm in Syria during the late Hellenistic period, known for his efforts to stabilize the economy through currency reforms and maintain regional control amid dynastic conflicts and external pressures.
Antiochus XII Dionysus: Last Seleucid King of Syria	87 - 82 BCE	Antiochus XII Dionysus ruled a shrinking Seleucid kingdom from Damascus during the final decades of Seleucid power in Syria, focusing on local alliances and defense amid dynastic strife and external threats.
Cleopatra Selene of Syria: Last Queen of the Seleucid Dynasty	82 - 69 BCE	Cleopatra Selene of Syria was a Ptolemaic princess who played a crucial role in sustaining Seleucid authority during the dynasty's final decades through strategic marriages, regency, and control of key coastal cities.
Antiochus XIII Philadelphus: The Last Seleucid Ruler in Syria	82 - 64 BCE	Antiochus XIII Philadelphus was a late Hellenistic Seleucid king whose reign marked the final phase of Seleucid rule in Syria, involving regency, exile, and Roman client kingship before the dynasty's end.
Philip II Philoromaeus: The Last Seleucid King	65 - 64 BCE	Philip II Philoromaeus briefly ruled parts of Syria during the 60s BC as the final Seleucid monarch, marking the end of an eleven-generation dynasty amid regional power struggles and Roman expansion.

Rulers of Epirus

Title	Date	Excerpt
Admetus of Epirus: Protector of Themistocles	before 470 BC – 430 BC	Admetus, king of the Molossian tribe in fifth-century BC Epirus, is known for providing asylum and safe passage to the exiled Athenian leader Themistocles, an event recorded by classical historians.
Tharrhypas of Epirus: Historical Insights from the Epirus Archaeological Site	430 BC – 392 BC	Tharrhypas, a Molossian king in late fifth century BCE Epirus, is noted for introducing Athenian cultural influences and institutional reforms that shaped the region's political and cultural landscape.
Alcetas I of Epirus: King and Political Figure in the Classical Period	390 BC – 370 BC	Alcetas I ruled the Molossian kingdom of Epirus during the late Classical period, navigating exile, foreign alliances, and a unique diarchic succession that influenced the region's monarchy.
Arybbas of Epirus: King of the Molossians and His Historical Role	373 BC – 343 BC	Arybbas ruled the Molossians in Epirus during the 4th century BC, known for his military leadership against Illyrian invasions and his Olympic victories, linking him to later Epirote rulers.
Neoptolemus I of Epirus: King of the Molossian Dynasty and Ancestor of Alexander the Great	370 BC – 357 BC	Neoptolemus I of Epirus was a late fourth-century BC Greek king whose reign marked the earliest evidence of the Molossian League and established dynastic ties to Alexander the Great.
Alexander I of Epirus: A Mid-Fourth Century BC Greek King and His Mediterranean Role	342 BC – 331 BC	Alexander I of Epirus was a fourth-century BC ruler whose reign connected Epirus with Macedon and involved military campaigns in southern Italy, influencing Greek and Italic dynamics and early Roman interactions.
Aeacides of Epirus: A Hellenistic King in the Wars of the Diadochi	331 BC – 317 BC	Aeacides of Epirus ruled during the turbulent early Hellenistic period following Alexander the Great, playing a key role in the Macedonian succession struggles and fathering Pyrrhus, a prominent later king. His reign reflects the complex interplay of dynastic ties, regional politics, and military alliances in Epirus and the wider Greek world.
Neoptolemus II of Epirus: A Molossian King of the Aiakid Dynasty	317 BC – 313 BC; 302 BC – 297 BC	Neoptolemus II ruled Epirus from 302 to 297 BC, known for his turbulent reign marked by internal conflict, a failed assassination plot, and his eventual violent death, which shaped the region's dynastic history.
Alcetas II of Epirus: King of the Molossians and His Reign	313 BC – 306 BC	Alcetas II of Epirus ruled the Molossians from 313 to 306 BC, known for his exile, return to power, alliance with Cassander, and a harsh rule that ended with his assassination.
Pyrrhus of Epirus: A Hellenistic King Shaping Mediterranean History	307 BC – 302 BC; 297 BC – 272 BC	Pyrrhus of Epirus was a Hellenistic monarch whose military campaigns and political maneuvers influenced the balance of power in the western Mediterranean during the late third century BC, notably impacting Greek affairs, Sicily, and southern Italy.
Alexander II of Epirus: A Hellenistic King of the Aeacid Dynasty	272 BC – 255 BC	Alexander II of Epirus was a Hellenistic ruler who continued his father Pyrrhus’s campaigns in Greece and Macedon, employing strategic warfare and leaving numismatic evidence of his reign.
Pyrrhus II of Epirus: Molossian King of the Aeacid Dynasty	255 BC – 237 BC	Pyrrhus II of Epirus ruled in the mid-third century BC, continuing the Aeacid dynasty before his early death led to the dynasty's male line extinction and succession by his daughter Deidamia II.
Olympias II of Epirus: Regent and Dynastic Figure in Ancient Epirus	242 BC -235 BC	Olympias II of Epirus was a royal regent who maintained Epirote sovereignty through strategic alliances and governed on behalf of her sons during the 3rd century BC.
Ptolemy of Epirus: Molossian King of the Aeacid Dynasty	237 BC – 234 BC	Ptolemy of Epirus was a Molossian king in the early third century BC whose brief reign ended the male line of the Aeacid dynasty and led to a rapid dynastic succession in Epirus.
Pyrrhus III of Epirus	234 BC – 234 BC	Pyrrhus III ruled Epirus around 234 BC and is chiefly remembered for his assassination, which ended the male line of the Epirote royal family and led to the monarchy's abolition.
Deidamia II and the Aeacid Dynasty	234 BC – 233 BC	Deidamia II was the last ruler of the Aeacid dynasty in Epirus, whose brief reign marked the end of royal authority and the rise of republican governance in the region.

Monarchs of Cyrene

Title	Date	Excerpt
Magas of Cyrene: King and Cultural Patron of Hellenistic Cyrenaica	c. 276–250 BC	Magas of Cyrene established an independent kingdom in North Africa during the Hellenistic period, fostering political autonomy and cultural life in Cyrenaica through strategic alliances and patronage of philosophy and medicine.
Berenice II Euergetis: Queen of Cyrenaica and Ptolemaic Egypt	c. 258–246 BC	Berenice II Euergetis ruled Cyrenaica and Ptolemaic Egypt in the 3rd century BCE, playing a key political and religious role and leaving a lasting cultural legacy.
Demetrius the Fair: Hellenistic Prince and King of Cyrene	c. 250–249 BC	Demetrius the Fair was a Macedonian-born prince who briefly ruled Cyrene, known for his dynastic marriage linking the Antigonid and Ptolemaic families and his dramatic assassination.
Ptolemy Apion: Last Greek Ruler of Cyrenaica and His Role in Roman History	105–96 BC	Ptolemy Apion was the final Greek ruler linked to Cyrenaica who bequeathed the region to Rome, marking the end of Hellenistic kingship and the beginning of Roman influence.
Cleopatra Selene II: Queen and Cultural Bridge in Roman North Africa	25–c. 5 BC	Cleopatra Selene II was a Ptolemaic princess who became queen of Mauretania, playing a key role in blending Greek-Egyptian traditions with Roman rule and fostering economic and cultural development in North Africa during the early Roman Empire.

Kings of Pergamon

Title	Date	Excerpt
Philetaerus and Pergamon: Founding the Attalid Dynasty in Hellenistic Anatolia	282–263 BC	Philetaerus established Pergamon as a fortified and prosperous center in northwest Anatolia during the Hellenistic period, using wealth and diplomacy to secure autonomy and lay the foundations for the Attalid dynasty's future expansion.
Eumenes I of Pergamon: Architect of an Independent Hellenistic State	263–241 BC	Eumenes I ruled Pergamon from 263 to 241 BC, transforming it from a semi-autonomous territory under Seleucid control into an independent principality through military victories, territorial expansion, and cultural patronage.
Attalus I Soter and Pergamon: Shaping a Hellenistic Kingdom	241–197 BC	Attalus I Soter ruled Pergamon from 241 to 197 BC, transforming it into a cultural and political center in Asia Minor through military victories, diplomatic alliances, and artistic patronage.
Eumenes II of Pergamon: Architect of a Hellenistic Kingdom	197–159 BC	Eumenes II ruled Pergamon from 197 to 158 BC, expanding its territory through diplomacy and alliance with Rome, and fostering cultural and civic achievements that established Pergamon as a center of learning and art in the eastern Mediterranean.
Attalus II Philadelphus: Hellenistic King of Pergamon and Roman Ally	160–138 BC	Attalus II Philadelphus played a crucial role in shaping Pergamon's political and cultural landscape during the second century BC through military leadership, diplomatic ties with Rome, and civic patronage.
Attalus III of Pergamon: The Last Attalid King and His Role in Roman Asia Minor	138–133 BC	Attalus III ruled Pergamon in the late Hellenistic period and is known for bequeathing his kingdom to Rome, a decision that reshaped the political landscape of western Asia Minor and facilitated Roman provincial expansion.
Eumenes III: The Last Attalid Claimant and His Revolt Against Rome	133–129 BC	Eumenes III, also known as Aristonicus, led a notable uprising against Roman control of the Attalid kingdom of Pergamon between 133 and 129 BC, challenging the transfer of power and influencing the political landscape of western Anatolia during the late Hellenistic period.

Kings of the Ptolemaic Kingdom

Title	Date	Excerpt
Ptolemy I Soter: Founder of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt	305–282 BC	Ptolemy I Soter established the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, transforming it into a stable monarchy and founding Alexandria as a center of Hellenistic culture and learning. His administrative, cultural, and military policies shaped Egypt's development for centuries.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus: Architect of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Alexandria	282–246 BC	Ptolemy II Philadelphus ruled the Ptolemaic kingdom from 284 to 246 BC, shaping its political, cultural, and economic landscape through administrative reforms, cultural patronage, and strategic diplomacy that influenced the Hellenistic world.
Ptolemy III Euergetes: Monarch of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt	246–221 BC	Ptolemy III Euergetes ruled Egypt from 246 to 222 BC, blending military expansion, religious innovation, and cultural patronage to shape the Ptolemaic dynasty's legacy and influence across the Mediterranean and Egypt.
Ptolemy IV Philopator: Ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and His Historical Impact	221–203 BC	Ptolemy IV Philopator ruled Egypt from 221 to 204 BC, overseeing a major military victory and extensive cultural patronage while facing internal political challenges and regional unrest that shaped the later Ptolemaic period.
Ptolemy V Epiphanes: Ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Rosetta Stone Legacy	203–181 BC	Ptolemy V Epiphanes ruled Egypt during a turbulent era marked by internal rebellion and loss of overseas territories. His reign restored central authority within Egypt and produced the Rosetta Stone, a key artifact for understanding ancient Egyptian language and history.
Ptolemy VI Philometor: Ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and Influencer of Hellenistic Politics	181–164 BC; 163–145 BC	Ptolemy VI Philometor ruled Ptolemaic Egypt during a turbulent era marked by military conflicts, dynastic struggles, and diplomatic interventions that shaped the eastern Mediterranean's political landscape.
Ptolemy Neos Philopator: Contested Legacy of a Ptolemaic Prince in Egypt	posthumously named king	Ptolemy Neos Philopator was a royal child of the Ptolemaic dynasty whose unclear identity, violent death, and later deification reflect the intense dynastic struggles and political complexities of late Hellenistic Egypt.
Ptolemy VIII: The Complex Reign of a Ptolemaic King of Egypt	170–163 BC; 145–116 BC	Ptolemy VIII ruled Egypt during the second century BC, navigating dynastic conflicts, Roman relations, and cultural patronage. His reign featured political ruthlessness alongside administrative reforms that influenced Egypt's stability and maritime trade routes.
Ptolemy Eupator: A Brief Co-Regent of the Ptolemaic Dynasty	152 BC	Ptolemy Eupator was a young prince and co-regent of the Ptolemaic dynasty whose brief rule and early death influenced the dynasty's succession and historical records.
Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira: Queen and Monarch of Ptolemaic Egypt	131–127 BC	Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira was a prominent ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt in the mid-second century BC, known for her unique role as both queen consort and sole monarch during periods of dynastic conflict and restoration.
Cleopatra III of Egypt: Influential Queen of the Ptolemaic Dynasty	116–101 BC	Cleopatra III ruled Egypt through joint reigns during a turbulent era, exercising direct authority, shaping succession, and using religious symbolism to legitimize her power amid dynastic conflicts that affected the kingdom's stability.
Ptolemy IX Soter: The Ptolemaic King of Egypt and His Historical Role	116–107 BC; 88–81 BC	Ptolemy IX Soter ruled Egypt during a turbulent era marked by dynastic struggles and external pressures, blending Hellenistic and Egyptian traditions while navigating complex family rivalries and regional diplomacy.
Ptolemy X Alexander I: The Last Generations of Ptolemaic Rule in Egypt	107–88 BC	Ptolemy X Alexander I ruled Egypt and Cyprus during a turbulent period marked by dynastic conflicts, regional revolts, and increasing Roman influence that weakened the Ptolemaic monarchy before Cleopatra VII's reign.
Berenice III: The Last Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt on Hellenistic History	81–80 BC	Berenice III was a late Ptolemaic queen whose brief reign and political role highlight the dynastic struggles, regional unrest, and Roman influence in Egypt's final Hellenistic era.
Ptolemy XI Alexander II: A Brief Reign in Hellenistic Egypt	80 BC	Ptolemy XI Alexander II ruled Egypt briefly in 80 BC, known for his forced marriage to Cleopatra Berenice and his assassination of her, which led to his own lynching and a shift in Ptolemaic succession.
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus: The Last Independent Ptolemaic King of Egypt	80–58 BC; 55–51 BC	Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus ruled Ptolemaic Egypt during a turbulent era marked by increasing Roman influence and internal challenges. His reign illustrates the final phase of Egypt's Hellenistic monarchy, highlighting the political and economic pressures that shaped the kingdom before Cleopatra VII's rise.
Cleopatra Tryphaena: A Ptolemaic Queen in Late Hellenistic Egypt	58–57 BC	Cleopatra Tryphaena played a brief but revealing role during a turbulent period in Egypt's late Ptolemaic dynasty, illustrating the fragile dynastic legitimacy and the increasing influence of Rome in Egyptian affairs.
Berenice IV Epiphaneia: Ptolemaic Queen of Egypt	58–55 BC	Berenice IV Epiphaneia ruled Egypt from 58 to 55 BC during her father Ptolemy XII's exile, navigating complex dynastic struggles and marriage alliances before Roman intervention restored her father to power.
Cleopatra: The Last Pharaoh of Egypt and Her Role in History	51–30 BC	Cleopatra VII Philopator was the final ruler of an independent Hellenistic Egypt, navigating complex political and cultural challenges during the rise of Roman power and leaving a lasting impact on Egypt's transition to Roman rule.
Ptolemy XIII: The Young Pharaoh and His Role in Egypt’s Transition	51–47 BC	Ptolemy XIII ruled Egypt during a pivotal period marked by dynastic conflict and Roman intervention, influencing the end of Hellenistic rule and Egypt's integration into the Roman world.
Ptolemy XIV Philopator: Joint Pharaoh of Egypt in the Ptolemaic Dynasty	47–44 BC	Ptolemy XIV Philopator was a young co-ruler of Egypt whose reign highlights Cleopatra VII's dominant authority and Egypt's close ties with Rome during the late Ptolemaic period.
Caesarion: The Last Pharaoh of Egypt and His Role in History	44–30 BC	Caesarion, the final native ruler of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty, symbolizes the end of pharaonic rule and the transition of Egypt into Roman control, reflecting complex political and cultural shifts in the late Hellenistic period.

Rulers of Bithynia

Title	Date	Excerpt
Boteiras of Bithynia: Dynastic Ruler and Regional Power in Ancient Anatolia	c. 416—376 BC	Boteiras was a dynastic ruler of Bithynia in the late 5th and early 4th centuries BCE, known for his shifting alliances with Greek and Achaemenid powers and his efforts to consolidate authority amid military challenges.
Bas of Bithynia: Early Independent Ruler in Asia Minor	c. 376-326 BC	Bas ruled Bithynia from 376 to 326 BC, successfully defending the region against Macedonian forces and establishing early independence in Asia Minor.
Zipoetes I of Bithynia: Founder of Dynastic Kingship in the Hellenistic Era	c. 326 - 278 BC	Zipoetes I ruled Bithynia from c. 326 to 278 BC, establishing its royal dynasty and engaging in key conflicts that shaped the region's history during the Hellenistic period.
Nicomedes I of Bithynia	278 - 255 BC	Nicomedes I ruled Bithynia from 278 to about 255 BC, consolidating power through strategic alliances and military actions, founding the city of Nicomedia, and shaping the region's political landscape during the Hellenistic period.
Zipoetes II: Hellenistic Ruler of Bithynia	278 - 276 BC	Zipoetes II was a Hellenistic ruler who controlled part of Bithynia from 279 to 276 BCE, resisting his brother Nicomedes I's efforts to unify the kingdom and influencing the region's political landscape through his conflict and the involvement of Gallic mercenaries.
Etazeta: Regent of Bithynia and Dynastic Struggles	255 - 254 BC	Etazeta was a brief regent of Bithynia after Nicomedes I's death, whose rule influenced the succession conflicts that shaped the kingdom's history.
Ziaelas of Bithynia: A Hellenistic King and His Reign	254 - 228 BC	Ziaelas was a Hellenistic king of Bithynia who expanded his dynasty's influence through warfare, diplomacy, and strategic alliances during the 3rd century BC.
Prusias I of Bithynia: A Hellenistic King Shaping Northwest Asia Minor	228 - 182 BC	Prusias I ruled Bithynia from 228 to 182 BC, expanding its territory and influence through warfare, diplomacy, and urban development, linking a small Anatolian kingdom to major Hellenistic powers and Rome.
Prusias II of Bithynia: A Hellenistic King in Anatolia – Historical and Archaeological Insights	182 - 149 BC	Prusias II ruled Bithynia from 182 to 149 BC, navigating complex relations with neighboring kingdoms and Rome. His reign illustrates the challenges faced by regional monarchs amid shifting power dynamics and internal strife, culminating in a violent succession that reshaped the kingdom's future.
Nicomedes II Epiphanes: King of Bithynia and Roman Ally	149 - 127 BC	Nicomedes II Epiphanes ruled the Hellenistic kingdom of Bithynia from 149 to about 127 BC, aligning closely with Rome and influencing regional politics and coinage.
Nicomedes III Euergetes of Bithynia: A Hellenistic King Navigating Power and Diplomacy	127 - 94 BC	Nicomedes III Euergetes ruled Bithynia in northwestern Anatolia from 127 to 94 BC, using marriage alliances, diplomacy, and patronage to maintain his kingdom's independence amid larger regional powers and Rome's growing influence.
Nicomedes IV Philopator: Last King of Bithynia and His Role in Roman Expansion	94 - 74 BC	Nicomedes IV Philopator ruled Bithynia during the late Hellenistic period, navigating complex rivalries and Roman diplomacy that ultimately led to the kingdom's integration into the Roman Republic. His reign marked the transition from independent Anatolian monarchy to Roman provincial governance, influencing the political landscape of Asia Minor.
Socrates Chrestus: A Bithynian Prince in the Context of Roman and Pontic Politics	c. 90 BC	Socrates Chrestus was a Bithynian prince whose brief and contested rule, backed by Mithridates VI of Pontus, highlights the complex power struggles in Bithynia and Rome's political maneuvers before the Mithridatic Wars.

Rulers of Commagene

Title	Date	Excerpt
Ptolemaeus of Commagene: Founder of an Independent Kingdom and Orontid Prince	163–130 BC	Ptolemaeus of Commagene established an independent kingdom in 163 BC, transforming a Seleucid satrapy into a monarchy with a royal lineage linking Armenian, Persian, and Hellenistic heritage.
Sames II Theosebes Dikaios: King of Commagene and His Historical Legacy	130–109 BC	Sames II Theosebes Dikaios was the second king of Commagene, known for his building projects and establishing dynastic traditions that influenced his successors.
Mithridates I Callinicus: King of Commagene from the Orontid Dynasty	109–70 BC	Mithridates I Callinicus ruled Commagene around 100–70 BC, establishing an independent kingdom through Hellenistic cultural adoption and strategic marriage ties to the Seleucid dynasty.
Antiochus I of Commagene: King and Cultural Innovator on the Historical Frontier	70–38 BC	Antiochus I ruled the Greco-Iranian kingdom of Commagene from 70 to 31 BC, blending Hellenic and Iranian traditions and leaving a lasting cultural and political legacy, notably through the Mount Nemrut sanctuary.
Mithridates II of Commagene: King and Diplomatic Figure in the 1st Century BC	38–20 BC	Mithridates II ruled Commagene during a pivotal era, navigating alliances with Roman leaders and managing internal family conflicts that shaped the kingdom's history.
Mithridates III Antiochus Epiphanes: King of Commagene in the 1st Century BC	20–12 BC	Mithridates III Antiochus Epiphanes ruled Commagene from 20 BC to 12 BC, continuing the dynasty of Iranian and Greek heritage and fathering successors who influenced regional alliances.
Antiochus III Epiphanes and Commagene: History on Rome’s Eastern Frontier	12 BC – 17 AD	Antiochus III Epiphanes ruled Commagene from 12 BC to 17 AD, a kingdom blending diverse ancestries and later absorbed into the Roman province of Syria after his death.
Antiochus IV Epiphanes and Commagene: Navigating Client Kingship under Roman Rule	38–72 AD	Antiochus IV Epiphanes ruled Commagene as a Roman client king from 38 to 72 CE, blending Hellenistic and local traditions while maintaining close ties to Rome. His reign illustrates the complexities of client kingship, including military cooperation, urban development, and dynastic symbolism, before his deposition ended Commagene's autonomy.

Rulers of Pontus

Title	Date	Excerpt
Mithridates I Ctistes: Founder of the Kingdom of Pontus – Historical and Archaeological Insights	281 - 266 BCE	Mithridates I Ctistes established the kingdom of Pontus in the early Hellenistic period, creating a lasting dynastic state that blended Greek and Anatolian-Iranian traditions and shaped regional politics for generations.
Ariobarzanes of Pontus: King and Founder of a Hellenistic Kingdom	266 - c. 250 BCE	Ariobarzanes, second king of Pontus, expanded his realm by securing the Black Sea city of Amastris and navigating complex relations with Gallic tribes in Anatolia during the mid-third century BC.
Mithridates II of Pontus: Architect of a Hellenistic Kingdom	c. 250 - c. 220 BCE	Mithridates II of Pontus was a mid-third century BCE ruler who strengthened the Pontic kingdom through strategic marriages, military actions, and diplomatic alliances, establishing lasting ties with the Seleucid dynasty and elevating Pontus's role in Anatolian politics.
Mithridates III of Pontus: Early Hellenistic King and Dynastic Figure	c. 220 - c. 185 BCE	Mithridates III of Pontus was an early Hellenistic ruler known for his dynastic ties to the Seleucid empire and for issuing some of the earliest Pontic coins bearing a royal portrait, reflecting his role in asserting royal authority during a period of limited historical records.
Pharnaces I of Pontus: A Hellenistic King Shaping Anatolian Politics	c. 185 - c. 170 BCE	Pharnaces I transformed Pontus from a regional power into a key player in Anatolian affairs through territorial expansion, diplomatic ties with Greek cities, and dynastic alliances, despite facing military setbacks against Pergamon and Cappadocia.
Mithridates IV Philopator Philadelphus: King of the Hellenistic Kingdom of Pontus	c. 170 - c. 150 BCE	Mithridates IV Philopator Philadelphus ruled Pontus in the mid-2nd century BC, noted for his pro-Roman and pro-Hellenic policies, diplomatic efforts, and distinctive coinage reflecting Persian and Greek influences.
Laodice of Pontus: Queen and Numismatic Figure of the Mithridatic Dynasty	c. 170 - c. 150 BCE	Laodice was a 2nd-century BC queen of Pontus known through coins, a statue, and inscriptions that reveal her role as a joint ruler with Mithridates IV and her unique royal status.
Mithridates V Euergetes: King of Pontus and His Historical Legacy	150 - 120 BCE	Mithridates V Euergetes ruled Pontus circa 150–120 BC, fostering Greek culture and maintaining pro-Roman alliances that shaped the kingdom's political and cultural landscape.
Mithridates VI Eupator and the Kingdom of Pontus: History and Legacy	120 - 63 BCE	Mithridates VI Eupator ruled Pontus from c. 120 to 63 BC, transforming it into a powerful kingdom that challenged Rome and influenced military, cultural, and medical traditions in the eastern Mediterranean.
Pharnaces II of Pontus: A Transitional King in the Black Sea Region	63 - 47 BCE	Pharnaces II ruled the Bosporan Kingdom after Mithridates VI, maintaining a client state amid Roman civil wars and briefly reclaiming parts of his father's realm before his defeat by Julius Caesar.
Darius of Pontus: A Brief Client King in Anatolia	39 - 37 BCE	Darius of Pontus, a member of the Mithridatic dynasty, ruled briefly as a client king under Mark Antony in 37–36 BC, with his reign marked by political appointments and subsequent conflict over Pontic authority.
Arsaces of Pontus: A Brief Hellenistic King in the Kingdom of Pontus – Historical and Archaeological Insights	37 BCE	Arsaces of Pontus was a 1st century BC Hellenistic prince and king whose brief reign challenged Roman authority in the Kingdom of Pontus, reflecting the complex dynamics of power in the region.
Polemon I Pythodoros: Roman Client King Shaping the Black Sea and Anatolia	37 - 8 BCE	Polemon I Pythodoros ruled parts of Pontus, the Bosporan kingdom, and Colchis in the late first century BCE, illustrating Rome's strategy of managing eastern frontiers through local dynasts. His reign combined military action, marriage alliances, and Roman patronage to maintain authority amid regional political shifts.
Pythodoris of Pontus: Roman Client Queen and Regional Ruler	8 BCE - 38 CE	Pythodoris of Pontus was a Roman client queen who governed parts of the Black Sea region and Anatolia in the early first century, overseeing Pontus and neighboring realms through strategic marriages and capable administration.
Polemon II of Pontus: Client King under Roman Rule	38 - 62 CE	Polemon II of Pontus was a first-century CE client king who ruled Pontus, Colchis, and Cilicia under Roman authority, illustrating the complex dynamics between local dynasts and the Roman Empire through cultural patronage, dynastic alliances, and political challenges.

Rulers of the Cimmerian Bosporus

Title	Date	Excerpt
Paerisades I: Spartocid King of the Bosporan Kingdom	349–311 BC	Paerisades I ruled the Bosporan Kingdom from circa 342 to 310/9 BC, expanding its influence around the Sea of Azov and engaging in conflicts with neighboring tribes and the Scythians.
Satyrus II and the Bosporan Kingdom	311–310 BC	Satyrus II ruled the Bosporan Kingdom briefly in 310 BC, noted for his military leadership during a dynastic conflict and his death in the Siege of Siracena.
Prytanis and the Bosporan Kingdom: A Historical Overview	310–309 BC	Prytanis ruled the Bosporan Kingdom briefly during a turbulent dynastic conflict in 310-309 BC, marked by civil war and shifting power among royal siblings.
Eumelus of Bosporus: Spartocid Prince and Bosporan King	309–304 BC	Eumelus of Bosporus was a Spartocid prince who secured the Bosporan throne through civil war, enacted military and naval reforms, fought piracy, and expanded his kingdom's influence in the Black Sea region.
Spartocus III and the Bosporan Kingdom	304–284 BC	Spartocus III ruled the Bosporan Kingdom from 304 to 284 BC, notable for adopting the title Basileus and renewing diplomatic and commercial relations with Athens, reflecting the kingdom's Hellenistic connections.
Paerisades II and the Bosporan Kingdom: Historical and Numismatic Insights	284–c. 250 BC	Paerisades II ruled the Bosporan Kingdom from 284 to 245 BC, noted for his diplomatic relations with Hellenistic states and changes in the kingdom's coinage reflecting economic shifts.
Spartocus IV and the Bosporan Kingdom: Insights from the Spartocid Dynasty	c. 250–c. 240 BC	Spartocus IV ruled the Bosporan Kingdom from 245 to 240 BC, known primarily through his coinage and a dramatic dynastic conflict involving his brother and sister-in-law.
Leucon II of Bosporus: Spartocid Ruler and Coinage Innovator on Bosporan Kingdom History	c. 240–210 BC	Leucon II of Bosporus was a ruler who secured power through fratricide and addressed economic challenges by issuing the first Bosporan coins bearing a king's name, marking a notable development in the kingdom's history.
Hygiaenon and the Bosporan Kingdom	c. 210–c. 200 BC	Hygiaenon served as archon of the Bosporan Kingdom around 220 BC, acting as a caretaker leader during a brief succession crisis and supporting the kingdom's heiress Camasarye until her marriage.
Camasarye II Philoctenus: Co-Ruler of the Bosporan Kingdom	c. 180–c. 160 BC	Camasarye II Philoctenus was a Spartocid queen who co-ruled the Bosporan Kingdom in the 2nd century BC, known from inscriptions and honors reflecting her political role and external relations.
Paerisades III and the Bosporan Kingdom: Insights from the Spartocid Dynasty	c. 180–c. 170 BC	Paerisades III ruled the Bosporan Kingdom around 180–150 BC, overseeing a period marked by diplomatic recognition, numismatic developments, and challenges including environmental and military pressures that affected the kingdom's economy and stability.
Paerisades IV Philometor: Spartocid King of the Bosporan Kingdom	c. 170–c. 150 BC	Paerisades IV Philometor ruled the Bosporan Kingdom in the mid-2nd century BC and is primarily known through coinage and inscriptions that shed light on the late Spartocid monarchy.
Paerisades V and the Bosporan Kingdom: A Historical Overview on Ancient Realms	c. 140–111 BC	Paerisades V was the final Spartocid ruler of the Bosporan Kingdom, whose reign ended amid Scythian uprisings and Pontic intervention, marking a pivotal shift in the kingdom's history.
Asander and the Bosporan Kingdom	48–47 BC; 44/43–c. 17 BC	Asander was a Greek-born Roman client king who secured control of the Bosporan Kingdom through military and political means, overseeing important defensive constructions and navigating complex dynastic struggles under Roman influence.
Dynamis and the Bosporan Kingdom: Navigating Power at the Edge of Rome	48–47 BC; 44/43 BC–c. AD 7/8	Dynamis was a queen of the Cimmerian Bosporus who maintained dynastic rule and local authority through strategic alliances and Roman relations during the transition from Republic to Empire. Her reign exemplifies the complexities of client kingship and cultural integration in a frontier kingdom influenced by Greek, Iranian, and steppe traditions.
Mithridates II of the Bosporus: A Brief Caesar-Backed King in Ancient Anatolia	47 BC–44/43 BC	Mithridates II of the Bosporus was an Anatolian nobleman who briefly ruled the Bosporan Kingdom with Julius Caesar's support during the late Roman Republic, reflecting the complex power struggles of the era.
Scribonius: Usurper of the Bosporan Kingdom and Roman Intervention	c. 15 BC	Scribonius briefly seized power in the Bosporan Kingdom in the late 1st century BC, claiming descent from Mithridates VI and triggering Roman involvement that reshaped the kingdom's leadership.
Tiberius Julius Aspurgus Philoromaios: Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom	8/10–38 AD	Tiberius Julius Aspurgus Philoromaios was a Roman client king who ruled the Bosporan Kingdom in the early first century AD, securing dynastic continuity through Roman recognition and establishing the Julian-Tiberian lineage for his successors.
Gepaepyris: Thracian Princess and Roman Client Queen of the Bosporan Kingdom	38–39/40 AD	Gepaepyris was a Thracian princess who ruled the Bosporan Kingdom as a Roman client queen in the 1st century AD, continuing a dynastic legacy through her descendants.
Tiberius Julius Mithridates: Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom	42–46 AD	Tiberius Julius Mithridates ruled the Bosporan Kingdom in the first century AD, exemplifying the complex relationship between local dynasties and Roman imperial authority in the Black Sea region.
Cotys I of the Bosporus: Roman Client King of the Bosporan Kingdom	46–63 AD	Cotys I ruled the Bosporan Kingdom from 45 to 63 AD as a Roman client king, blending local dynastic traditions with Roman imperial authority. His reign highlights the complex political and military relationships on Rome's northeastern frontier and left a lasting dynastic legacy.

Rulers of Cappadocia

Title	Date	Excerpt
Ariarathes I: Iranian Noble and Founder of the Cappadocian Dynasty	331–322 BC	Ariarathes I governed northern Cappadocia during the decline of the Achaemenid Empire and resisted Macedonian conquest, establishing a dynastic legacy that influenced the region for centuries.
Ariarathes II and the Ariarathid Dynasty: Historical Insights from Ancient Cappadocia	301–280 BC	Ariarathes II restored his family's rule in southern Cappadocia around 301 BC, navigating complex regional power struggles and establishing semi-autonomous governance under Seleucid influence.
Ariaramnes of Cappadocia: King and Diplomat in Ancient Anatolia	280–230 BC	Ariaramnes ruled Cappadocia circa 280–230 BC, establishing its independence from the Seleucid Empire and blending Persian and Hellenic cultural elements in his administration and coinage.
Ariarathes III: Hellenistic King of Cappadocia on Ancient History and Archaeology	255–220 BC	Ariarathes III ruled Cappadocia in the mid-3rd century BC, establishing royal titulature and forging a key dynastic alliance with the Seleucid dynasty that shaped the region's political landscape.
Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia: Diplomatic and Cultural Leadership in Hellenistic Anatolia	220–163 BC	Ariarathes IV ruled Cappadocia from 220 to 163 BC, skillfully maintaining its autonomy through shifting alliances with the Seleucids, Rome, and Pergamum. His reign fostered Hellenistic culture and political stability amid regional upheavals.
Ariarathes V of Cappadocia: A Hellenistic Monarch Navigating Roman and Seleucid Powers	163–130 BC	Ariarathes V ruled Cappadocia in the mid-2nd century BC, balancing Hellenistic culture with strategic alliances to maintain his kingdom amid the decline of major eastern powers and the rise of Rome.
Orophernes of Cappadocia: A Brief Hellenistic Ruler Explored by Historical and Archaeological Insights	c. 157–155 BC	Orophernes Nikephoros was a short-lived ruler of Cappadocia in the mid-2nd century BC whose contested reign highlights the complexities of Hellenistic dynastic struggles, foreign influence, and the role of coinage in ancient political power.
Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia: A Hellenistic and Iranian Monarch	130–116 BC	Ariarathes VI ruled Cappadocia from 130 BC to 116 BC, navigating complex dynastic struggles and foreign influences while blending Hellenistic and Iranian royal imagery in his coinage.
Ariarathes VII Philometor: King of Cappadocia in the Late 2nd Century BC	116–101 BC	Ariarathes VII Philometor ruled Cappadocia during a turbulent period marked by dynastic struggles and external interference from neighboring kingdoms, shaping the region's political landscape.
Ariarathes VIII Epiphanes: King of Cappadocia and the Ariarathid Dynasty	101–96 BC	Ariarathes VIII Epiphanes ruled Cappadocia during a turbulent period marked by internal rebellion and external influence from Pontus and Rome, culminating in the end of the Ariarathid royal line.
Ariarathes IX Eusebes Philopator: A Mitridatid King of Cappadocia	100–85 BC	Ariarathes IX Eusebes Philopator ruled Cappadocia under the influence of Pontus, Armenia, and Rome during the late Hellenistic period, with his reign marked by dynastic struggles and external interventions.
Ariobarzanes I of Cappadocia: Navigating Power and Rome in Anatolia	96–c. 63 BC	Ariobarzanes I ruled Cappadocia during a turbulent period marked by regional conflicts and Roman expansion, skillfully maintaining his kingdom's survival and modest growth through alliances and Roman support.
Ariobarzanes II Philopator: King of Cappadocia and Patron of Hellenic Culture	c. 63–51 BC	Ariobarzanes II Philopator ruled Cappadocia in the 1st century BC, known for supporting Greek culture and relying on Roman military aid during a turbulent reign that ended with his assassination.
Ariobarzanes III Eusebes Philorhomaios: King of Cappadocia and Rome’s Ally	51–42 BC	Ariobarzanes III Eusebes Philorhomaios ruled Cappadocia from 51 to 42 BC, navigating complex internal rivalries and Roman political dynamics during the late Republic.
Ariarathes X Eusebes Philadelphos: King of Cappadocia and Roman Client	42–36 BC	Ariarathes X Eusebes Philadelphos ruled Cappadocia around 42–36 BC, navigating complex dynastic struggles and Roman political alliances during a turbulent period of civil wars.
Archelaus of Cappadocia: Rome’s Last Client King in Anatolia	36 BC – 17 AD	Archelaus ruled Cappadocia from 36 BC to 17 AD, overseeing a kingdom at the crossroads of Rome, Armenia, and Parthia. His reign highlights Rome's strategy of managing eastern frontiers through client kings who balanced local authority with imperial dependence, fostering urban development and regional diplomacy before Cappadocia's annexation as a Roman province.

Antigonid Dynasty

Title	Date	Excerpt
Antigonus I Monophthalmus: Architect of the Early Hellenistic World	306–301 BC	Antigonus I Monophthalmus was a Macedonian general and successor of Alexander the Great who transformed provincial command into dynastic kingship, shaping the political landscape of the eastern Mediterranean after Alexander's empire fragmented.
Demetrius I Poliorcetes: Military Leader and King in Hellenistic History	294–288 BC	Demetrius I Poliorcetes was a prominent Hellenistic ruler and military innovator who played a key role in the turbulent period following Alexander the Great, known for his advances in siege warfare and his complex political career as king of Macedon.
Antigonus II Gonatas: Stabilizer of Macedon in the Hellenistic Era	277–274 BC; 272–239 BC	Antigonus II Gonatas restored order to Macedon after turmoil and Gallic invasions, establishing a stable monarchy that influenced Greek affairs and fostered intellectual life at his court.
Demetrius II of Macedonia: A Hellenistic King Preserving Antigonid Power	239–229 BC	Demetrius II ruled Macedonia from 239 to 229 BC, maintaining the kingdom's influence amid challenges from Greek federations through military action, diplomacy, and dynastic marriages, ensuring the continuity of the Antigonid dynasty.
Antigonus III Doson: Restorer of Macedonian Power in Ancient Greece	229–221 BC	Antigonus III Doson ruled Macedonia from 229 to 221 BC, restoring Macedonian influence across mainland Greece through military skill and diplomatic alliances that balanced power among Greek states and secured the kingdom's frontiers.
Philip V of Macedon: The Last Antigonid King and His Role in Hellenistic History	221–179 BC	Philip V of Macedon ruled during a pivotal era, striving to maintain Macedonian power amid the rise of Rome. His military campaigns, reforms, and diplomatic efforts shaped the balance of power in Greece and the eastern Mediterranean in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.
Perseus of Macedon: The Last Antigonid King and His Role in Ancient Macedonian History	179–168 BC	Perseus of Macedon was the final native ruler of the Antigonid kingdom, whose reign ended with the decisive Roman victory at Pydna in 168 BC, marking a major shift in control over Greece and the eastern Mediterranean.
Andriscus: The Last Macedonian King and His Role in Roman Macedonia	149–148 BC	Andriscus briefly restored the Macedonian monarchy in 149–148 BC, challenging Roman control and prompting the transformation of Macedonia into a Roman province. His revolt marked a key shift in Roman policy in the Balkans and reflected enduring local resistance to Roman rule.

Antipatrid Dynasty

Title	Date	Excerpt
Cassander: Architect of Macedonian Power in the Early Hellenistic Period	310–297 BC	Cassander ruled Macedonia after Alexander the Great, shaping the region through political strategy, urban foundations like Thessalonica, and administrative reforms that influenced the early Hellenistic world.
Philip IV of Macedon: Brief Reign and Historical Role on Ancient Macedonia	297 BC	Philip IV of Macedon briefly ruled Macedonia in 297 BC, succeeding his father Cassander and attempting to continue his policies before his early death halted these plans and shifted power to his brothers.
Alexander V of Macedon: A Brief Reign in the Early Hellenistic Period	297–294 BC	Alexander V of Macedon ruled during a turbulent era marked by dynastic struggles and foreign interventions that reshaped Macedonian sovereignty after Alexander the Great's death.
Antipater I of Macedon: A Hellenistic King in Historical Context	297–294 BC	Antipater I of Macedon ruled jointly with his brother Alexander V in the late 4th century BC, marking the end of the Antipatrid dynasty descended from Perdiccas I.
Antipater Etesias: Brief King of Macedon in 279 BC	279 BC	Antipater Etesias briefly ruled Macedon during a turbulent period following Ptolemy Keraunos's death, representing a contested claimant amid dynastic struggles after Alexander the Great.
Sosthenes of Macedonia: Military Leadership During the Gallic Invasions	279–277 BC	Sosthenes was a Macedonian military leader who took command during the crisis following the Gallic invasions of 279 BC, organizing the kingdom's defense and stabilizing Macedonia temporarily amid early Successor period turmoil.

Lysimachid Dynasty

Title	Date	Excerpt
Lysimachus: Architect of a Hellenistic Kingdom and Successor to Alexander	306–281 BC	Lysimachus, a Macedonian general and successor of Alexander the Great, expanded his rule from Thrace to Asia Minor and Macedonia, shaping the early Hellenistic political landscape through military, administrative, and dynastic actions.

Kings of Macedon

Title	Date	Excerpt
Perdiccas I: Founder of the Argead Dynasty in Ancient Macedonia	c. 650 BC	Perdiccas I is recognized as the earliest recorded king of Macedonia and the founder of the Argead dynasty, playing a central role in the early formation of Macedonian royal lineage and territorial expansion.
Argaeus I: Early Macedonian King and Argead Dynasty Ancestor	c. 623	Argaeus I was an early ruler of the ancient Macedonian Argead dynasty, noted by classical authors as one of the kingdom’s first kings and remembered for his military victory over the Illyrian Taulantian king Galaurus and the founding of a temple dedicated to Pseudanor.
Philip I of Macedon: Early Argead King and Ancestor of Alexander the Great	c. 593	Philip I of Macedon was an early ruler of the Argead dynasty whose reign involved defending his kingdom against Illyrian and Thracian incursions and who established a lineage leading to Alexander the Great.
Aeropus I of Macedon: Early Argead King on Ancient Macedonia	c. 563	Aeropus I of Macedon was an early Argead king whose reign is noted for a legendary episode where his presence inspired Macedonian forces to repel invasions, marking an important moment in the kingdom's early history.
Alcetas: Early Argead King of Macedon	c. 533	Alcetas was a 6th-century BC Macedonian king from the Argead dynasty, noted for his peaceful rule and role in early Macedonian history.
Amyntas I of Macedon: Early Argead King and Diplomatic Pioneer	c. 512 – 498/7	Amyntas I ruled Macedon in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC, establishing early diplomatic ties with Persia and Greek city-states that shaped the kingdom's development and regional influence.
Alexander I of Macedon: Architect of Early Macedonian Statehood	498/7 – 454	Alexander I of Macedon ruled in the early fifth century BC, expanding his kingdom's territory and influence through diplomacy, cultural engagement, and economic development, laying foundations for future Macedonian power.
Perdiccas II and the Kingdom of Macedon	454 – 413	Perdiccas II ruled Macedon during a turbulent era, skillfully maintaining its independence through shifting alliances and diplomacy amid the Peloponnesian War and regional conflicts. His reign preserved Macedon’s position and laid groundwork for future consolidation despite internal and external challenges.
Archelaus of Macedon: Architect of a Transitional Kingdom	413 – 399	Archelaus ruled Macedon from 413 to 399 BC, transforming it from a tribal monarchy into a more organized territorial state through reforms in administration, military, economy, and culture, while fostering ties with the Greek world.
Orestes of Macedon	399 – 398/7	Orestes was a child king of Macedon whose brief rule led to a transfer of power to his uncle Aeropus II, marking a notable episode in the Argead dynasty's history.
Aeropus II: Macedonian King and Political Figure in Early 4th Century BC	398/7 – 395/4	Aeropus II ruled Macedonia around 398–393 BC during a period of dynastic struggle and regional tension. His reign highlights the fragile nature of Macedonian kingship before Philip II's rise, marked by political maneuvering, cautious foreign policy, and a contested succession.
Amyntas II of Macedon: A Brief Reign in Ancient Greek History	394/3	Amyntas II ruled Macedon briefly around 394/3 BC, with his short tenure marked by uncertain lineage and an abrupt assassination that led to a dynastic succession.
Pausanias: A Brief Reign in Ancient Macedonian History	394/3	Pausanias ruled the ancient Macedonian kingdom for about one year around 394/3–393/2 BC during a period of dynastic instability and rapid succession.
Amyntas III: Preserver of the Argead Monarchy in Ancient Macedonia	393 / 393 – 369	Amyntas III ruled Macedonia during the fourth century BC, stabilizing the kingdom through diplomacy and strategic alliances. His reign laid the foundation for the rise of his descendants, including Philip II and Alexander the Great, by restoring territorial control and maintaining royal continuity.
Argaeus II: The Contested Macedonian Pretender	393? (disputed)	Argaeus II was a Macedonian figure whose brief and disputed claims to the throne highlight the turbulent power struggles in Macedonia before Philip II's reign.
Alexander II of Macedon: A Brief Reign in Ancient Macedon	369 – 368	Alexander II of Macedon ruled briefly during a turbulent period marked by invasions, internal conflicts, and political intrigue that shaped the kingdom's future.
Ptolemy of Aloros: Regent and Usurper in Ancient Macedon	368 – 365	Ptolemy of Aloros played a pivotal role in Macedonian history during the late 4th century BC by seizing regency through assassination and navigating complex political challenges before his violent removal.
Perdiccas III: King of Macedon in the Fourth Century BC	365 – 360/59	Perdiccas III ruled Macedon during a turbulent period marked by political struggles, philosophical patronage, and military conflict with the Illyrians, culminating in his death in battle.
Amyntas IV of Macedon	360/59	Amyntas IV of Macedon was a child king whose brief and contested reign reflects the complex dynastic struggles of ancient Macedonia during the rise of Philip II and Alexander the Great.
Philip II of Macedon: Architect of Macedonian Power and Influence	360/59 – 336	Philip II transformed Macedon from a fragmented kingdom into a centralized state with a professional army and strong economy, laying the groundwork for his son Alexander's expansive empire.
Alexander the Great: The Macedonian Conqueror and Cultural Pioneer	336 – 323	Alexander the Great expanded Macedonian rule across three continents, initiating widespread cultural exchange and founding cities that shaped the Hellenistic world.
Philip III Arrhidaeus	323 – 317	Philip III Arrhidaeus ruled Macedonia during the turbulent years following Alexander the Great's death, serving as a ceremonial monarch whose reign reflects the complex power struggles and fragmentation of the empire among competing generals.
Alexander IV of Macedon: The Last Argead King and His Role in Hellenistic History	323 – 310	Alexander IV of Macedon was the posthumous son of Alexander the Great whose brief life symbolized the political fragmentation of his father's empire and the transition to the Hellenistic kingdoms.

Kings of Bactria

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Indo-Greek Kings

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