Roman travel by sea and river

Movement of People Across Roman Waterways

Not only goods but people moved along Rome’s waterways. The empire’s seas and rivers teemed with travelers of all kinds: merchants on business, government officials on assignments, soldiers on transfer, migrants seeking new opportunities, and pilgrims visiting sacred sites.

Long-distance travel in antiquity was arduous, but for those who could afford it or had official sanction, ships were the fastest means to cover great distances. A voyage that took a month by road might be only a week by sea – weather permitting. Merchants routinely accompanied their cargo on ships, or sent agents, to negotiate sales at the destination.

Diplomatic envoys and imperial couriers, bearing messages between the provinces and Rome, often took ship at least for legs of their journey (for example, between Greece and Italy). Ordinary people also took passage on merchant ships. There was no organized passenger liner service, but captains would take travelers if space allowed and the price was right.

Civilian Travel and Transport Conditions

The Bible’s Acts of the Apostles provides an illustration: the Apostle Paul and other passengers sailed on a grain ship from Palestine toward Rome, stopping at ports along the way – a typical scenario of civilians hitching a ride on a cargo vessel. Conditions were spartan: passengers slept on deck or wherever they could, and brought their own food. Yet despite the discomforts, sea travel was preferable to weeks of jolting in a wagon or the dangers of bandits on lonely roads.

River Travel and Regional Networks

For those traveling by river, boats and ferries offered transit where roads were lacking. In some regions (like Lower Egypt or parts of Gaul), it was normal for travelers to go by riverboat from town to town. River journeys were generally safer than sea voyages but could be slow if going upstream. Ancient travelers left accounts complaining of interminable upriver treks on barges pulled by mule teams.

Still, an inland water route spared one the cost of pack animals and the bumps of the road. By either mode, travel required planning and some luck. There were no public passenger timetables, and as noted, ships waited for winds and auspicious omens. Travelers had to be flexible with their time.

Infrastructure for Travelers

Along the main routes, the empire did provide some infrastructure for wayfarers. The cursus publicus (state courier service) maintained mansiones (posting inns) at regular intervals on Roman roads, and similar stations existed at some ports. These official inns offered lodging, fresh horses, and supplies to those on imperial business.

However, they were not open to private citizens without special permission – an ordinary traveler could only use the state posts by obtaining a diploma (travel pass) issued by the emperor or a governor. This pass (also called an evectio) stipulated the bearer’s entitlement to horses, mules, or even ships, and effectively served as a passport in the Roman world.

High-ranking officials and couriers carried such documents to speed them on their way. Most people, though, relied on the private hospitality industry. In every port city and waystation, inns (cauponae) and taverns catered to travelers with food and a bed (of variable quality).

Inns, Taverns, and Hospitality

For sailors coming into Ostia or Piraeus, numerous waterfront taverns offered cheap wine, while boardinghouses provided a night’s rest for a few coins. Ancient graffiti and literature indicate these establishments could be rowdy and frequented by thieves, so wary travelers often preferred to stay with friends or business contacts if possible.

Merchants, for instance, might lodge with local trade partners rather than risk a seedy inn.

Formalities and Documentation

Travel by water also came with formalities. Tariffs and customs fees had to be paid when bringing goods into a port. A merchant arriving at Alexandria or Antioch’s harbor would visit the customs house, declare his cargo, and pay the requisite portorium tax before he could sell his wares.

Documents such as merchant licenses, cargo manifests, and import permits might be inspected by officials. In some periods, travel could require additional paperwork – for example, during times of plague or war, the authorities might issue health clearances or safe-conduct letters for travelers moving between provinces.

An interesting form of travel document were the itineraria: basically route maps or lists of destinations on roads and sea routes, sometimes carried by travelers to guide them. The famous Tabula Peutingeriana is one surviving example of a Roman route map (though probably not carried in hand due to its length). In general, educated travelers consulted written guides or relied on local pilots for sea routes.

Risks of Travel by Water

Despite all preparations, travelers on Roman waters faced significant risks. Storms were the foremost danger – sudden squalls or gales could capsize ships or drive them onto reefs. Navigational methods were primitive by modern standards (no compass, only rudimentary charts). If clouds obscured the stars, a ship could easily go off course.

Thousands of ancient shipwrecks discovered on the seafloor attest to the perils of seafaring. The Mediterranean is littered with cargoes of amphorae from ships that sank in bad weather. One estimate suggests hundreds of Roman ships wrecked each year over the centuries of empire.

Travelers caught in a storm could only pray to the gods – and many did. The Roman traveler Horace wrote vividly of seasick passengers and terrified sailors vowing offerings to Neptune if they survived. Even on rivers, floods or hidden snags could overturn a boat.

Piracy and Lawlessness

Piracy and robbery, though much reduced under Rome’s dominance, could still occur. In remote areas, a lone river barge might be attacked by bandits on the shore. On the open sea, by the imperial period, organized piracy was rare, but pockets of trouble persisted (for instance, the Isaurian pirates of the 3rd century in Cilicia).

A traveler on a merchant ship might not worry about pirates in the heyday of the Pax Romana, but by late antiquity, as central authority waned, piracy resurged in some waters.

Delays, Discomforts, and Realities

Finally, travelers had to endure the delays and discomforts inherent in ancient transport. A voyage could be delayed for days by unfavorable winds – ships did not depart on set dates but waited until wind, weather, and even omens were right.

Progress could be painfully slow with a weak breeze; conversely, a strong headwind could halt progress entirely or force a ship to seek shelter. Many travelers experienced unexpected layovers in foreign ports, waiting for weather to clear. This is a common theme in ancient letters – Cicero, for example, writes of being stuck at a port due to contrary winds.

Patience was a necessary virtue. The physical discomfort was another issue: ships were cramped, often lacking any private quarters. Seasickness was common (the naturalist Pliny the Elder recommended bizarre remedies for it, like fasting or hanging wool soaked in vinegar around one’s neck). Sanitation on board was minimal.

Pilgrims traveling to holy sites – say, to visit the Oracle of Delphi or later the Christian holy places in the East – had to suffer these same hardships.

A Surprisingly Mobile World

Yet, despite the dangers and discomforts, tens of thousands of people traveled by sea and river each year in the Roman Empire. The volume of travel increased in times of prosperity.

By the 2nd century, wealthy Romans even undertook sea cruises for leisure (the emperor Hadrian toured Greece and Asia Minor by sea, essentially as a grand tour). Lower-class folks might not roam so far, but many still took short trips – a provincial sailor might visit home by hopping on a coasting vessel, or a Gallic farmer might send his son to Italy by ship to seek work.

The connectivity provided by water travel meant that the Roman world was surprisingly mobile. Strabo in the early 1st century noted that “one can sail from one end of our sea to the other and always be among Romans or their allies” – a testament to how travel had become routine within the empire’s borders.