The Cult of Mithras: A Persian God in Roman Military Life
The cult of Mithras was rooted in the ancient Persian deity Mithra, a god associated with light and contract in Zoroastrian tradition. During the Hellenistic era, elements of Mithra-worship filtered westward, and by the late 1st century CE a new mystery cult of Mithras had formed within the Roman world. This cult took on unique features distinct from Persian worship, blending Persian themes with Greco-Roman mystery religion practices.
Archaeological evidence suggests Mithraism began in the city of Rome itself around 98–99 CE, during the reign of Nerva or Trajan. From the early 2nd century onward, Mithras’ influence spread rapidly across the empire (from Dura-Europos on the Euphrates frontier to Hadrian’s Wall at the empire’s northwestern edge). Mithras was often identified with the Sun and with heroic virtues, making him appealing far beyond his Persian origins.
Arrival and Popularity in Rome
Mithraism found its most enthusiastic following among Roman soldiers. It was a male-only cult, and its values of discipline, loyalty, and brotherhood resonated with the military lifestyle. Legionaries and officers stationed on distant frontiers carried the cult with them, establishing Mithraic shrines wherever they went. Evidence of Mithraea (Mithras temples) appears in frontier garrisons across Europe and the Middle East, often near Roman forts.
For instance, along Hadrian’s Wall in Britain, several Mithraic temples have been discovered (at Rudchester, Housesteads, and Carrawburgh) indicating the god’s importance to the garrisons there. Merchants and imperial officials also joined the cult, venerating Mithras as a patron of contracts and truth (his followers even called each other syndexioi, meaning “united by the handshake,” symbolizing trust). Within a few generations, Mithras became known as the “soldier’s god,” and his cult had spread to virtually every province, although it remained somewhat exclusive due to its secret initiation rites.
Mystery Practices and Initiation
Worship of Mithras took place in secretive cave-like sanctuaries called Mithraea (singular Mithraeum). These temples were often constructed underground or in repurposed cellars to evoke the cave where Mithras was said to have slain a mystical bull. The typical Mithraeum was small, dimly lit, and long in shape (accommodating perhaps 20–40 devotees). Stone benches lined the sides for ritual meals, and at the apse stood a relief or fresco of Mithras slaying a bull, the central icon of the cult.
This bull-slaying image, known as the tauroctony, shows Mithras in a Persian cap plunging a dagger into a bull as a dog, snake, and scorpion attend (a scene rich in astrological symbolism). The true meaning of the tauroctony remains elusive (possibly representing the triumph of light over darkness or an allegory of cosmic renewal), but its presence was universal in Mithraic sanctuaries.
The Seven Grades of Initiation
Devotees progressed through seven grades of initiation, each with its own title and symbolic role. These ranks, in ascending order, were commonly:
- Raven (Corax), the first rank associated with Mercury and service
- Bridegroom (Nymphus), symbolizing a new union with the deity
- Soldier (Miles), reflecting the cult’s military ethos
- Lion (Leo), associated with Jupiter and fiery purification
- Persian (Perses), honoring Mithras’ Persian roots
- Sun-Runner (Heliodromus), linked to the sun’s course
- Father (Pater), the highest rank, a spiritual father figure of the cult
Advancement was likely marked by challenging initiations, involving tests of courage and ritualized experiences. One artifact, a decorated bowl from the Carrawburgh Mithraeum, bears images of lions and refers to the Lion grade, suggesting initiates of that level used it in sacred feasts. Because Mithraism was a mystery religion, its teachings were not written down but transmitted orally to the initiated. This secrecy means that modern knowledge of Mithraic beliefs relies heavily on archaeology (temple remains, inscriptions, and artwork) rather than texts.
Brotherhood and Archaeological Impact
The cult fostered a strong sense of brotherhood among its members. Mithraic initiates addressed each other as brothers, and their rituals (such as shared meals in imitation of Mithras’ banquet with the sun-god) reinforced camaraderie and loyalty. This would have been especially comforting for soldiers far from home. Archaeology reinforces how widespread and uniform the cult was. Over 200 Mithraea have been found from Rome to Britain, from North Africa to the Danube frontier, each with the familiar tauroctony iconography.
Notable examples include the Mithraeum of Londinium in Britain (discovered in 1954 under London’s Walbrook Street) which contained altars and statues of Mithras alongside other deities. In Rome, a Mithraeum under the church of San Clemente shows how the cult even penetrated the capital’s urban fabric. Many Mithraea yield evidence of ritual feasting: bones of sacrificial animals, remains of food like fruits and pine cones (some found imported from the Mediterranean to the northern frontier specifically for use in Mithraic rites). The shrine at Carrawburgh, for example, was waterlogged soon after abandonment, preserving organic remnants of its rituals (such as a bowl of pine cones and even parts of wooden benches). These finds give us rare insight into the lived experience of Mithraic worship.
Legacy and Decline
At its height in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, Mithraism was one of the most prominent mystery religions in the empire, drawing frequent comparisons with early Christianity. Both religions were contemporaries that promised salvation, practiced baptism-like purifications, and held sacred communal meals, though likely coincidentally, as the two faiths developed independently. Some early Christian writers viewed Mithras as a diabolical mimicry of Christ to lead souls astray. There is no evidence of direct borrowing, but the parallel features are striking to historians (for example, Mithras was sometimes depicted ascending to heaven in a solar chariot, vaguely echoing Christ’s ascension imagery).
By the late 4th century CE, however, Mithraism was in steep decline. The rise of Christianity, now backed by imperial power, led to the suppression of pagan cults. Edicts of Christian emperors, especially Theodosius I in 391 CE, likely forced remaining Mithraic cells to disband. The cult’s secretive, exclusive nature may have hastened its end, as it never became a mass religion for families or women. Yet, the cult of Mithras left a lasting legacy: it exemplifies the Roman ability to embrace a Persian god and make him at home in legionary fortresses and cities across Europe. Mithraism also contributed to the rich number of religious thought in Late Antiquity, fueling conversations (and sometimes controversies) among pagans and Christians about the meaning of sacrifice, salvation, and truth. The faded reliefs of Mithras slaying the bull, found in dark corners of excavated temples, remind us of a time when Roman soldiers knelt in cavern shrines on the empire’s frontiers, initiated into the mysteries of a Persian savior god far from Rome’s traditional pantheon.