Roman Homes: Domus and Villa Architecture

Overview and list of Ancient Roman Homes across the Roman Empire

The domus was a type of town house in ancient Rome, primarily occupied by the upper classes and wealthy freedmen. This architectural style was prevalent during the Republican and Imperial eras. Domūs, the plural form, were found in major cities across Roman territories. The term domestic in modern English derives from the Latin word domesticus, which is linked to domus. 

Wealthy families often owned both a domus in the city and a villa, a separate country house that was typically larger and more luxurious. These country houses provided more space and were designed for leisure and agricultural activities. The architectural features of a villa varied, but they generally included residential accommodations for the owner. The evolution of the villa reflected changes in Roman society and economy, particularly during the late Republic and Imperial periods.

In contrast to the domus, many lower-class Romans lived in insulae, which were crowded and often poorly maintained apartment buildings. These multi-level structures lacked the status and comfort of private homes. The stark difference in living conditions highlighted the social stratification within Roman society, where wealth and status were visibly represented in housing styles.

Roman Homes You Can Still Visit Today

Historical Development of the Domus

The early Etruscan homes, which preceded Roman architecture, were simple huts. These structures were built on an axial plan with a central hall and an open skylight. The Temple of Vesta is believed to have been inspired by these early dwellings. As Rome expanded through trade and conquest, the homes of the wealthy became larger and more luxurious, influenced by both Etruscan and Hellenistic architectural styles.

The domus typically featured multiple rooms, indoor courtyards, and gardens. The layout was designed for both functionality and aesthetics. The vestibulum served as the entrance hall, leading into the atrium, which was the central space of the house. The atrium often contained an altar for household gods, reflecting the religious practices of the family.

Interior Layout of the Domus

The interior of a domus was organized around the atrium, which was the focal point of the home. Surrounding the atrium were various rooms, including cubicula (bedrooms), a triclinium (dining room), and a tablinum (study). The culina, or kitchen, was typically located at the back of the house. This arrangement allowed for both private family life and public entertaining.

Wealthy Romans often had limited exterior windows due to the early state of glass production. Consequently, the design of the domus emphasized internal spaces. The tablinum served as a connection between the atrium and the peristyle, allowing the head of the household to oversee activities within the home.

Architectural Elements of the Domus

Key architectural features of the domus included the vestibulum, atrium, and impluvium. The vestibulum was the main entrance, while the atrium was open to the sky, allowing rainwater to collect in the impluvium below. This design facilitated natural light and ventilation within the home.

The fauces were passageways leading deeper into the domus, providing access to different sections of the house. The tablinum was an important space for the dominus, where he would receive clients. The triclinium, designed for dining, featured three couches arranged around a low table, allowing guests to recline while eating.

Exterior Features of the Domus

The exterior of the domus included the ostium, or entrance, and tabernae, which were shops facing the street. The design of the domus often prioritized security and privacy, with the main living areas set back from the street. The peristyle, a garden area surrounded by columns, was typically located at the rear of the house.

Roman homes did not have clearly defined spaces for slaves or women. Slaves were an integral part of the household, often sleeping near their masters’ doors. Women utilized various spaces within the domus for work and social activities, reflecting the fluidity of domestic roles.

Archaeological Insights

Much of the knowledge about the Roman domus comes from excavations at sites like Pompeii and Herculaneum. These sites provide well-preserved examples of Roman domestic architecture. In contrast, many homes in Rome have been altered or repurposed over time, making it difficult to study their original structures.

The House of Augustus is one of the few remaining examples of a Roman domus, though it does not represent a typical home due to its association with a prominent figure. The intact homes of Pompeii offer valuable insights into the daily lives of Romans, showcasing various architectural styles and decorative elements.

The Role of the Villa in Roman Society

The villa served multiple purposes in Roman culture, functioning as a residence, agricultural estate, and leisure retreat. The concept of the villa evolved over time, with different types emerging, such as the villa urbana and villa rustica. The villa urbana was often located near cities and focused on luxury, while the villa rustica was primarily agricultural.

Wealthy Romans constructed villas in picturesque locations, often overlooking the sea or in the countryside. These villas became centers of economic activity, including agriculture and trade. The architectural features of villas included gardens, baths, and spacious living areas, reflecting the lifestyle of their owners.

By the first century BC, the classic villa design included features such as atriums and peristyles. These elements allowed for open, airy spaces that enhanced the living environment. Many villas were equipped with heated baths and under-floor heating systems, showcasing advancements in Roman engineering.

The construction of villas increased during the late Roman Republic, particularly after the dictatorship of Sulla. This period saw a rise in the number of luxurious villas, often associated with the elite class. The villas of prominent figures like Cicero and Pliny the Younger are well-documented, providing insights into their lifestyles.