Production Ancient Roman Clothing

Introduction

Ready-made clothing was available for purchase across various social classes in ancient Rome, but the cost could be prohibitive for common citizens. For instance, a new cloak for an ordinary commoner might represent three-fifths of their annual subsistence expenses. As a result, many garments were recycled and passed down through generations, often changing hands as part of marriage settlements or bequests in wills. High-quality clothing could even be rented out to those who needed to make a good impression, reflecting the social dynamics of status and appearance. Clothing theft was common, particularly in public baths, where garments were often resold and recycled down the social scale until they were reduced to rags. Even these remnants were valuable; centonarii, or patch-workers, made a living by sewing clothing and other items from recycled fabric patches.

Self-sufficiency in clothing production was a common practice among Roman households. Women, in particular, engaged in carding, combing, spinning, and weaving as part of their daily routines. This domestic production not only provided clothing for their families but also allowed them to supplement the household income by selling yarn or woven fabric. In wealthier households, the presence of wool-baskets, spindles, and looms in the atrium served as a demonstration of the family’s industry and frugality. Augustus took pride in the fact that his wife and daughter set a public example by spinning and weaving clothing. High-caste brides were expected to create their own wedding garments, often using traditional vertical looms.

Most fabric and clothing production was carried out by professionals whose trades were protected and regulated by guilds. These guilds ensured that standards were maintained and that the quality of garments met the expectations of consumers. The weaving process was designed to minimize waste, with pieces woven as closely as possible to their intended final shape. Once a woven piece of fabric was removed from the loom, its loose end-threads were tied off, hemmed, or used to create decorative fringes. The transition from vertical to horizontal looms, which began around 298 AD, marked a significant improvement in efficiency, although the lack of mechanical aids in spinning continued to be a bottleneck in fabric production.

Colours and Dyes

Roman dyers had access to a wide variety of plant-based dyes, allowing them to produce an extensive range of colors. The earliest associations of professional dyers in Rome date back to the reign of King Numa. Dyers utilized locally produced dyes to create shades of red, yellow, blue, green, and brown, with blacks achieved using iron salts and oak gall. The most sought-after dye was Tyrian purple, derived from the murex shellfish, which was highly prized for its deep hues and associations with royalty. Despite regulations limiting its use, Tyrian purple became popular among the wealthy elite, who often flaunted their status through its use. Counterfeit versions of this dye were also available for those who could not afford the genuine article.

Other popular dyes included madder, which was one of the cheapest options for red hues, and saffron yellow, known for its bright and fiery appearance. Saffron yellow was particularly associated with purity and was used in the flammeum, a veil worn by brides. Specific colors were also linked to chariot-racing teams, with the Reds and Whites being the oldest, followed by the Blues and Greens, who dominated during the later Imperial era. The rivalry between these teams often spilled over into civil unrest, highlighting the social significance of color in Roman clothing.

Converting Hides into Leather

The Romans employed two primary methods for converting animal hides into leather: tanning and tawing. Tanning produced a soft, supple brown leather, while tawing, which involved alum and salt, resulted in a pale leather that readily absorbed dyes. Both processes generated strong odors, leading to the establishment of tanners’ and tawers’ shops away from urban centers. Animal hides were typically supplied to tanners by butchers as a byproduct of meat production. The military’s demand for leather was substantial, as it was used for various equipment, including jerkins, belts, boots, and military tents.

Laundering

Fullonicae, or laundries, were prevalent in urban areas, serving as vital establishments for garment care. The laundering process was labor-intensive, involving the use of urine and manual labor to clean and restore garments. Workers would tread on the garments in large tubs filled with aged urine, which acted as a cleaning agent due to its ammonia content. Afterward, garments were rinsed, wrung out, and spread over wicker frames to dry. High-quality togas, particularly those worn by the elite, underwent intensive laundering to achieve a pristine appearance.

Fullonicae were often operated by lower-class citizens or freedmen, and their services were crucial for maintaining the appearance of Roman clothing. The elite viewed the profession of fulling and laundering as ignoble, yet fullers themselves considered their work respectable and profitable. The high-quality woolen togas of the senatorial class were subjected to rigorous laundering processes, while lower-ranking citizens used togas made from less expensive wool, which were laundered more cheaply. The distinction in laundering practices among different social classes underscored the importance of appearance in Roman society.