Languages of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was home to a diverse range of languages, with Latin and Greek being the most prominent. While Latin was the language of the Western Empire, Greek flourished in the eastern provinces and served as the lingua franca across many regions. The Roman approach to language was not one of imposition but of integration, with many local languages coexisting alongside Latin and Greek.

Latin: The Language of the West

Latin was the heart of the Roman world, used for administration, legislation, and military matters. From the early days of the Republic, Latin established itself as the language of the Romans. It became the standard for governance, with edicts, laws, and official communication issued in Latin. While Latin was not universally spoken by all inhabitants, it was essential for those involved in politics, law, and military service.

Despite its dominance, Latin was not forced upon conquered peoples. Saint Augustine noted that the adoption of Latin was often through social agreements rather than imposition. Over time, Latin spread across the empire, with various local dialects and variations emerging. It eventually evolved into the Romance languages, such as Spanish, French, and Italian, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Greek: The Language of the East

Greek was the predominant language in the Eastern Roman Empire. Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek became the common language of the eastern Mediterranean, reaching from Greece to Asia Minor. By the time of the Roman Empire, Greek was the language of culture, diplomacy, and intellectual exchange in the East. The Christian Church also adopted Greek for its religious texts, including the New Testament.

While Latin was favored in the Western Empire, Greek remained influential, especially in cities like Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople. Educated Romans were often bilingual, learning Greek to engage with the culture and politics of the East. The Roman emperors themselves, though primarily Latin speakers, often used Greek in diplomatic contexts.

Regional Languages

In addition to Latin and Greek, many other languages were spoken across the Roman Empire. These languages were often used in local administration, religious practices, and daily life.

Punic: The language of the Carthaginians, continued to be spoken in North Africa. Inscriptions and literature in Punic survived into the Imperial period.
Coptic: The later form of the Egyptian language, written in the Greek alphabet, became important in Egypt, especially among Christian communities.
Aramaic: Widely spoken in Syria and Mesopotamia, Aramaic was the language of the ancient Semitic peoples and used in much of the Eastern Roman Empire.
Celtic: Various Celtic languages, such as Gaulish and Brittonic, were spoken in Western Europe. Evidence of these languages persists in inscriptions, though they were gradually replaced by Latin.
Germanic: The Germanic tribes spoke their own languages, with Gothic being the most well-documented. Bilingualism in Latin and Germanic languages was common in the military.
Palaeo-Balkan Languages: Including Illyrian and Thracian, these languages interacted with Latin as Roman influence expanded into the Balkans.

Multilingualism and Roman Identity

Multilingualism was common, particularly among the educated elite, who often spoke Latin, Greek, and other regional languages. The Babatha Archive, for example, features documents in Aramaic, Greek, and Latin, showcasing the practical use of multiple languages in daily life. Bilingualism was also a marker of Romanization and Hellenization, as individuals integrated into Roman society while retaining aspects of their native cultures.

Greek and Latin in the Christian Church

Christian communities across the Roman Empire used a variety of languages. Greek played a large role in spreading Christianity, especially with the use of the Greek New Testament. Latin was also used, particularly in the West, and became the liturgical language of the Roman Catholic Church. By late antiquity, Christianity had adopted multiple languages to serve its diverse populations, with some councils conducting affairs in Greek, Latin, and other regional tongues.

The Legacy of Roman Languages

The languages of the Roman Empire had a lasting impact. Latin continued to be the language of diplomacy and intellectual discourse throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period. It evolved into the Romance languages, spoken by over a billion people today. Greek remained the dominant language of the Byzantine Empire and influenced the development of modern Greek. Latin’s influence on legal and scientific terminology persists, especially in the fields of law, medicine, and the sciences.