Twelve Lesser Known Roman Gods and Goddesses

Janus received invocation at the beginning of rites, while Saturn’s temple housed the public treasury. Major festivals honoured gods beyond the twelve main gods and goddesses. Cult titles also connected a deity with particular communities or occasions. Roman religion explains the rituals through which worshippers honoured them.

On this page12 sections

Janus: beginnings and doorways

Janus was associated with doorways, passages and beginnings. His two faces suited the image of a threshold looking in two directions. January bears his name, and he was invoked at the opening of rites. Ovid’s Fasti presents him as a gatekeeper and explains why he receives attention before other gods. The gates of Janus at Rome also acquired a public association with war and peace.

Saturn: agriculture and the Golden Age

Saturn was associated with sowing and a mythical Golden Age of abundance. At the December Saturnalia, worshippers feasted and exchanged gifts, and enslaved people received temporary liberties within the celebrations. His temple housed Rome’s treasury. Roman literature also identified him with Greek Cronus.

Bacchus: wine and initiation

Bacchus was identified with Greek Dionysus and associated with wine, fertility, theatre and religious initiation. His imagery could celebrate pleasure and abundance, while particular groups organised rites around membership and shared worship. In 186 BC the Senate imposed severe restrictions on Bacchic associations in Italy. The surviving decree regulates leadership, common funds, oaths and gatherings, allowing exceptions through official permission. It reveals concern about independent organisation and religious authority.

Tellus: the productive earth

Tellus, or Terra Mater, personified the earth and its fertility. At the Fordicidia on April 15, pregnant cows were sacrificed on the Capitol and within Rome’s curiae, traditional civic divisions with their own rites. Ovid connects the pregnant victims with the earth bearing its growing crop. The Vestals burned the unborn calves and kept their ashes for purification at the later festival of Pales.

Faunus: countryside and prophecy

Faunus was associated with the countryside, flocks and prophecy. Roman stories placed his oracles in rural settings, and identification with Pan shaped goat-like imagery. Ancient writers associated the February Lupercalia with Faunus or Pan, although the festival’s origins and divine dedication remain disputed.

Sol: the sun and imperial protection

Sol personified the sun and appeared with a radiate head or in a chariot. His worship preceded the later empire. Aurelian promoted his cult in the third century, and imperial coins portrayed Sol as a protector of the ruler. Sol Invictus means “Unconquered Sun.”

Luna: the moon

Luna personified the moon, often wearing a crescent or travelling in a chariot. Artists paired her with Sol in representations of the heavens. Interpretations could connect Luna with Diana, while worship at particular sanctuaries retained named cults.

Proserpina: the underworld and return

Proserpina was identified with Persephone, daughter of Ceres and queen of the underworld. Poets told of her abduction, her mother’s search and her return for part of the year. The story connected agricultural renewal with loss and the realm of the dead. Worshippers honoured Ceres and Proserpina together in particular rites.

Dis Pater: the dead and wealth below ground

Dis Pater ruled the underworld and was associated with Pluto. Cicero connected the name Dis with wealth, interpreting riches as coming from beneath the earth. This explanation joined the god’s rule over the dead with resources held underground.

Liber: wine, fertility and adulthood

Liber was associated with wine and fertility and identified with Bacchus. Worshippers honoured him alongside Ceres and Libera. The Liberalia in March marked the assumption of the adult toga by some young Roman males, linking a household’s decision about adulthood with a public festival.

Victoria: victory

Victoria personified victory and commonly appeared with wings, a wreath or a palm. Her image accompanied military success, imperial claims and public monuments. Roman rulers used her to represent divine support for their achievements, while dedications could express gratitude or hope for success.

Fortuna: changing circumstances and local cults

Fortuna was associated with fortune and changes in human circumstances. A cornucopia expressed abundance, while a rudder could suggest direction or control. Her many cult titles defined particular relationships with people, communities or occasions. Fortuna Virilis and Fortuna Publica are such titles, not simply the names of two festivals. At the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Palestrina, substantial late Republican terraces, ramps and vaulted structures show the resources committed to one local form of her worship. The sanctuary’s oracle and religious traditions gave Fortuna a role more specific than a general personification of random luck.