Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor: Qin Imperial Burial Complex
Site at a Glance
- Popularity
- Very High
- Country
- China
- Primary era
- Classical
- Eras represented
- Classical, Modern
- Civilizations
- Chinese, Qin
- Site type
- Burial
- Remains
- Necropolis
On this page25 sections
History
The Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor is a Qin imperial burial complex in Lintong District, Xi’an, China, begun in 246 BCE for Ying Zheng, later known as Qin Shi Huang. Its construction continued through the Qin era, with the main phase following the unification of China in 221 BCE. The complex was intended to serve the emperor after death, and its figures and burial goods reflect a change in funerary practice, as constructed human and animal attendants increasingly took the place of living ones.
Building an imperial tomb
Ying Zheng began the project at the age of 13, when he became king of Qin. After conquering rival states and unifying China, he adopted the title Qin Shi Huang, meaning the First Emperor. The Qin dynasty, China’s first imperial dynasty, ruled from 221 to 206 BCE. Construction of the mausoleum is dated to 246–208 BCE, though parts of the complex were left unfinished.
The historian Sima Qian wrote that 700,000 workers were brought from across the empire after unification. The labor force included prisoners of war and people sentenced to penal labor, and excavated graves support the use of forced labor. Work on the mausoleum and the Epang Palace, another major Qin royal project, imposed severe hardship. Farming and village life were disrupted, food became scarce, and an estimate attributes about two million deaths to forced labor and executions.
Archaeologist Duan Qingbo challenged the tradition that the project took 37 years. He argued that the similar style of the figures and objects points to the principal work having been completed in a much shorter time.
Burial, rebellion, and early damage
A peasant uprising during the final years of Qin rule interrupted construction. Qin general Zhang Han redirected workers from the mausoleum to fight the rebels. Qin Shi Huang was buried in 210 BCE, and the earthen mound was raised over the presumed burial place the following year.
The complex was plundered and badly damaged within years of its completion. Xiang Yu, a military leader in the conflict that ended the Qin dynasty, may have looted the tomb after entering Xianyang. A fire may also have started when a shepherd used a torch while searching for a lost sheep, but this explanation is uncertain. Fire damage survives in the pits containing the Terracotta Army.
Sima Qian also related that childless concubines were killed and buried with the emperor, and that workers who knew the tomb’s secrets were sealed inside. Excavated evidence has not confirmed those claims. Burials of men and women with signs of violent deaths have been found, but whether they died in a funerary rite, were compelled to follow their former ruler, or were killed amid political conflict remains unresolved.
Rediscovery and archaeological work
On 29 March 1974, villagers digging a well at Xiyang uncovered terracotta fragments, bronze arrowheads, and other remains. The discoverers included Yang Zhifa, his five brothers, and Wang Puzhi. Cultural official Zhao Kangmin bought back objects found by villagers, including arrowheads that had been sold elsewhere. Hydraulic-works manager Fang Shumiao encouraged the villagers to take their finds to the district cultural center.
Shaanxi archaeologists began excavating what became Pit 1 in May 1974. Drilling identified Pit 2 in May 1976, and Pit 3 was located that July. The discovery was announced publicly in July 1975. Subsequent excavation revealed thousands of figures, wooden chariots, and weapons, and protective buildings were erected over the exposed pits.
Excavation has revealed only part of the burial complex. The central mound and chamber remain unexcavated, while surveys and magnetic studies have helped investigate the area below ground. High mercury readings around the mound may be related to the ancient burial complex, although industrial pollution has also been proposed as an explanation.
Conservation has addressed the fragile painted surfaces of the figures and other finds. Early excavation and treatment caused paint and lacquer to peel from some figures; a method developed in 2004 helped protect surviving paint. Work has also treated the bronze water birds and stone armor, while research into deterioration inside the covered pits has informed preservation efforts. In 1987, the mausoleum and Terracotta Army were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Excavation of a large courtyard-style palace began in 2010, and its discovery was announced in 2012. On 30 May 2025, a person climbed into Pit 3 and shook figures, causing two statues to fall and sustain damage.
Remains
The complex covers about 56 square kilometers at the foot of Mount Li, roughly 35–36 kilometers northeast of Xi’an and near the former Qin capital of Xianyang. The Sha River runs about 1.3 kilometers east of the complex. Its layout was modeled on Xianyang and organized around inner and outer walled precincts, with the burial mound in the inner enclosure and many subsidiary pits distributed across the wider area.
Precincts and central burial
Enclosing walls
The inner and outer precinct walls have perimeters of about 2.5 and 6.3 kilometers respectively. Built of rammed earth, or soil compacted in layers, they were about 8 meters thick and originally stood 8–10 meters high. The outer wall had gates on all four sides and watchtowers at its corners; the inner wall also had a northern gate.
Mound and underground palace
The artificial burial mound stands in the southwest of the inner precinct and faces east. It has a flat-topped, pyramid-like form. Its original height is estimated at about 115 meters; erosion and other losses have reduced it to about 76 meters. The burial chamber intended for the emperor’s coffin and grave goods has not been excavated. It is estimated to measure about 80 meters east to west, 50 meters north to south, and 15 meters high, with estimates placing it 20–50 meters below ground.
Surveys indicate a brick wall around the underground palace, about 4 meters high and approximately 460 meters long north to south and 390 meters east to west. A rammed-earth wall enclosed it above. Sloping passages lead toward the four sides, and the western passage connects to a pit containing bronze chariots and horses. An underground dam and drainage system was identified in 2000, and the tomb appears not to have been flooded by groundwater.
Audience hall
North of the mound stood a rectangular audience hall measuring about 57 by 62 meters, surrounded by a covered corridor. Written accounts associate it with the emperor’s robes, crown, armrest, and walking stick. Excavation also uncovered an elaborate set of bronze bells.
The Terracotta Army
The principal warrior pits lie about 1.5 kilometers east of the mound, beyond the Sha River. The figures were arranged in underground corridors divided by rammed-earth partitions. Timber supports and roofs covered the pits, and a ramp at the front of one pit provided access for moving figures into its corridors. Wooden structures, chariots, and weapon shafts have largely perished, leaving impressions and other traces. The army is estimated to have included nearly 8,000 figures, representing infantry, cavalry, chariot crews, officers, and generals.
Pit 1
The largest principal pit covers about 14,260 square meters. It held more than 6,000 soldiers and about 40 teams of four-horse chariots. Its formation included a vanguard, central ranks, flanks, and rear guard. The vanguard began with 204 archers in its first three rows. Chariots were placed within the formation, and crossbowmen were positioned to guard against attacks from different directions.
Pit 2
Pit 2 covers about 6,000 square meters and contained approximately 1,200 figures and 89 chariot teams. Its force combines infantry, cavalry, archers, and chariots. The arrangement has been interpreted as a mobile attack formation.
Pit 3
The smallest principal warrior pit measures about 17.6 by 21.4 meters and has a U-shaped plan. It is interpreted as a command center. Its finds include a four-horse chariot, three armored soldiers carrying long pole weapons, a command officer, and additional pole-weapon bearers in the two arms of the pit. Deer antlers and animal bones found there may have been used in a victory rite.
Figures, paint, and weapons
The figures were arranged in military formations, and their clothing, armor, and headgear distinguish ranks and roles. Ordinary soldiers are at least 1.85 meters tall, while generals reach about 2 meters. Faces, hairstyles, beards, and equipment vary, though the figures are not portraits of specific people. A fourth warrior pit was started but left unstocked, and the complex as a whole remained unfinished.
The hollow figures were made from local loess, a fine wind-deposited soil, and fired at about 900–1,050°C. Standardized components were assembled into individual figures. A standing warrior weighs about 150–200 kilograms and consists of seven main parts, from its base and legs to its torso, arms, hands, and head. Heads were made from two joined halves, with modeled details added; hands and other parts were also molded. Some bodies were formed from rolled sheets or coils of clay.
Originally, the figures had multiple layers of color over a dark-brown lacquer base. Lacquer is a protective coating made from tree sap. Surviving pigments include red, purple, green, blue, white, and brown, with detailed painting on skin, eyes, hair, clothing, armor, belts, and decorative borders. Much of the paint was lost after excavation, although some pigment preserved in surrounding soil was removed for conservation.
Real weapons found among the figures include bronze swords, arrowheads and spearheads, iron spear and arrow components, and bronze crossbow mechanisms. Some carry maker’s marks and serial numbers linked to state production quality controls. Inscriptions connect weapons to a central workshop called Sigong, and stamped dates place some manufacture in the emperor’s early years as king. Chromium traces on weapon surfaces came from nearby lacquer rather than from an intentionally applied anti-corrosion coating.
Other pits and associated finds
Stone armor and helmets
Pit K9801, within the walled precinct, contained stone armor and helmets and was discovered in 1998. Excavation covered about 145 square meters. A single suit used roughly 600 limestone pieces joined with bronze wire, and the pit may contain more than five million pieces. Some suits have been restored. The plates vary in shape, sometimes carry decoration, and include examples made for horses; they were originally arranged on wooden stands.
A nearby Qin-period well yielded unfinished plates, broken pieces, and tools for making the connecting wire, including a perforated clay casting mold. These finds provide evidence of how the armor was produced.
Terracotta performers
Pit K9901, interpreted as an artists’ pit, contained eleven terracotta figures on separate bases. The partly unclothed figures wear patterned, painted loincloths, and their poses suggest movement. They were found broken, and six were initially restored. The pit had three corridors running east to west. Other finds included horseshoes, a stone horse harness, pieces of weapons and armor, and a decorated bronze cauldron weighing 212 kilograms. The figures may represent acrobats or other performers, but their precise roles remain uncertain.
Bronze water birds and musicians
Pit K0007 lies about 900 meters northeast of the outer wall’s eastern corner and covers nearly 1,000 square meters. A timber-lined tunnel contained an artificial stream, about 60 meters long and 1.4 meters wide, with waves molded from clay. Forty-seven hollow-cast, life-sized bronze birds had been found by 2002, including cranes, geese, and swans. The birds were painted and stood on bases; one crane holds a small fish in its beak. Swans measure about 0.9 meters long, cranes about 1.3 meters, and wild geese about 0.5 meters.
Fire, vandalism, a collapsed roof, and groundwater damaged the birds. Some were restored between 2003 and 2005. Terracotta musicians occupied niches in the tunnel walls: seven figures kneel and eight sit. Remains of wooden instruments and a small plectrum were found with them, and they may have played zithers. More than 260 small objects were recovered nearby, including a silver piece shaped like a fingernail, over 200 awl-shaped bronze objects, and nine pieces of bone.
Officials and horses
Pit K0006, near the inner wall’s southwest corner, runs east to west and is about 5 meters deep. Its front and rear chambers have walls about 2.7 meters high, with a wooden floor and roof. The pit contained figures interpreted as four civilian officials and four charioteers. They carry no military weapons; knives and honing steels hang from their belts, tools used to scrape writing from wooden or bamboo slips.
Horse remains and traces of a wooden chariot were also found. Nine adult horse skeletons were excavated in the rear chamber, and the total number of horses was estimated at 20. The pit may represent an underground imperial stable or preparations for a journey. Another pit excavated in 2000 contained twelve figures interpreted as ministers and numerous horse skeletons.
Bronze chariots
A pit about 20 meters west of the mound, excavated in 1978, held two bronze chariots inside a wooden shrine that collapsed. Both vehicles, about half life-size, were badly damaged and later restored. Each is a four-horse, single-pole chariot weighing more than 1.2 tonnes and made from over 3,000 parts. They are displayed in the order in which they were found.
The forward vehicle, known as the High Chariot or Inspection Chariot, has an ornate canopy resembling a parasol and carries one standing officer. Its equipment includes a bronze crossbow, a shield, and two quivers holding 50 and 12 arrows. The rear vehicle, called the Comfortable Chariot, has a driver’s compartment at the front and a covered passenger compartment behind, with windows containing diamond-shaped openings. The horses stand about 65–75 centimeters high, and the full chariot measures about 3.28 meters long and 1.04 meters high.
Both vehicles have elaborate gold and silver fittings. The second carries 1,720 ornaments made with more than 3 kilograms of gold and 4 kilograms of silver. Their manufacture involved casting, carving, soldering, riveting, inlaying, filing, and grinding.
Animal burials and human graves
South of the inner wall’s western gate, animal burials included 31 birds and rare animals placed in clay coffins, along with pottery vessels suitable for animal food and bronze rings. Kneeling terracotta animal keepers were found nearby. A pit in the southwest of the wider complex held more than 300 horse skeletons, some with severed limbs. Inscribed pottery identifies the horses as coming from palace stables, and terracotta grooms were also found. Another bird burial pit was discovered about 500 meters away in 1996. Additional horses were buried east of the complex near Shangjiaocun.
A burial near Shangjiaocun contained 17 men and women in wooden coffins. Gold, silver, jade, and fine silk fragments indicate that they were of high status; some bodies had severed limbs. Their deaths remain unexplained.
Worker burial grounds
Two worker burial grounds were found west of Zhaobeihu, southwest of the outer wall and about 1.6 kilometers from the mound. Survey work identified 93 small shaft graves, about half of which were excavated. The graves measured 1.10–1.76 meters long and 0.50–0.76 meters wide, and lay 0.20–0.76 meters below the modern ground surface. Most held two or three skeletons, often young men buried in a crouched position.
Eighteen inscribed brick fragments refer to punishments imposed on convicts, and the dead came from six states. Iron ankle shackles were associated with about 100 further forced-labor burials.
Palace remains and preservation
Courtyard palace
The foundations of a large courtyard-style palace cover an estimated 170,000 square meters, measuring about 690 by 250 meters. The plan comprised 18 courtyard houses and a main building overlooking them. Excavators found walls, gates, stone roads, pottery fragments, and brickwork.
Condition of the excavated complex
Looting, fire, collapse, and water have damaged parts of the complex. Burned beams and fire marks remain in the warrior pits, where falling earth crushed figures. Sand entered some pits and bent or broke roof beams. Many wooden structures, chariots, and weapon shafts survive as impressions in the soil. Roofed protective buildings cover the excavated pits; the largest, above the main warrior pit, is about 200 meters long and 70 meters wide. Most excavated figures remain at the site, while some have been taken elsewhere for study, conservation, or exhibition.
